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BOSTON UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
THESIS
A STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
AND ABILITY GROUPING
IN THE JLTTIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SUBMITTED BY
HUBERT ALOYS I US McGRATH
(A. B. HOLY CROSS COLLEGE, 1925)
In partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of Master of Education
AUGUST 1934
First Reader: Jesse B. Davis, Professor of Education
Boston University.
Second Reader: Guy M. Wilson, Professor of Education
Boston Iftiiversity.
Boston University
School of Education
Library
J
7' .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter I
Introduction
Page 1
Chapter II
It 7
The Functions of the Junior High School
(a) The Functions of the Junior High
School
(b) The Basic Functions of the Junior
High School
Chapter III " 26
Individual Differences of Junior High
School Pupili
(aj Age
(Id) Physical Development
(c) Mental Differences
(d) Differences in Achievement
(e) Interests, Tastes, and Aptitudes
(f) Differences in Environment and Back-
Ability Grouping in the Junior High School
(a) Bases of Grouping
(b) Mode of Procedure in Grouping
(c) Attitudes Toward Grouping
(d) Practices in Connection With
ground
Chapter IV
" 52
Grouping
Chapter V
Summary and Conclusion
" 90
Bibliography
" 96
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1 Distribution by Ages of 395 Pupils in Grade
VII of the Belmont (Mass.) Junior High School
Figure 2 Distribution by Ages of 367 Pupils in Grade
VIII of the Belmont (Mass.) Junior High School
Figure 3 Distribution by Ages of 305 pupils in Grade IX
of the Belmont (Mass.) Junior High School
Figure 4 Distribution of 395 Pupils According to I. Q. »s
in Grade VII of the Belmont (Mass.) Junior
High School
Figure 5 Distribution According to I. Q. 's of 367 Pupils
in Grade VIII of the Belmont (Mass.) Junior
High School
Figure 6 Distribution According to I. Q. 's of 305 Pupils
in Grade IX of the Belmont (Mass.) Junior High
School
c
I
i
PREFACE
The purpose of this study is to examine the
nature and extent of individual differences in the jun-
ior high school and the most comirionly used method of pro-
viding for them; namely, homogeneous or ability grouping.
The method of investigation has consisted partly in an
original study of certain individual differences in a
modern junior high school together with a survey of abil-
ity grouping practices in various junior high schools, but
more largely of an analysis of the data made available by
various investigators examining the individual differences
of j^jnior high school pupils and the technique of ability
grouping .
An effort has been made to compare the results of
these studies, in order to show, if possible, trends in the
range and type of individual differences in our enlarged
junior high school population resulting from the rapidly
changing conditions of o^or social and economic life. In
treating the question of ability grouping, the method con-
sisted primarily in an examination of the more important
of the recent studies dealing with this problem in the jun-
ior high school in order to discover the methods and prac-
tices that have been l'§und most efficient and most sound
from an educational standpoint in connection with the use o
this Dlan as a means of recognizing individual differences
#
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The problem of individual differences and their
recognition is of paramount importance in the field of
secondary education. The number of secondary school
pupils has increased from 293,963 in 1890 to 4,399,422 in
1930. While only one pupil in ten of secondary school
age was enrolled in the high school in 1890, in 1930, ac-
cording to data furnished by the United States Office of
Education, the number of pupils enrolled in the last four
grades of the public school system was 47.2 per cent of
all persons aged 15 to 18 years inclusive in the Itoited
States according to the census of 1930. If the enroll-
ments in secondary departments of colleges and normal
schools and in private high schools and academies are
added to the public high school enrollments, the total reg-
istration in grades IX, X, XI, and XII was 51.6 per cent
of the number of pupils who on the basis of age (i.e. 15 to
18 years inclusive) formed the potential secondary school
1
population.
Biennial Survey of Education, 1928-30. U. S. Office of
Education Bulletin (1931) No. 20 Vol. II p. 687-689.
The effect of this astounding increase upon the extent and
variety of the individual differences of pupils is of
deep significance to those interested in education. Thorn-
2
dike showed that in 1890, when only one child in ten of
secondary school age entered high school, 95 per cent of
these pupils were above the average in native intelligence,
whereas in 1918, when approximately one child in three en-
tered the high school only 83 per cent of them were above
the average. That this percentage has decreased much
further since 1S18 is beyond question.
Nowhere has this problem of individual differ-
ences been more keenly felt than in the junior high school.
3
Billet showed that from 1912 to 1930 the percentage of pu-
pils enrolled in the first year of the high school has in-
creased from 38 per cent of the enrollment in the seventh
grade in 1912 to 80 per cent in 1930. From these figures
it is probable that the number of pupils and, consequently,
the range of individual differences in the junior high
school grades has increased tremendously. The signifi-
cance of this for the junior high school is marked. Num-
^Thorndike, Edward L. Changes in the Quality of Pu-
pils Entering High School. School Review 30:355-359.
May 1922.
"^Billet, Roy 0. Individual Differences, Marking, and
Promotion. National Survey of Secondary Education Series
Bulletin, 1932. No. 17. p. 4
t
i
bering among its special functions the recognition of in-
dividual differences and the retention of pupils, it can
readily be seen that an increased obligation rests uDon
this organization to ascertain, as accurately as it caja,
the nature and extent of these differences and the most
4
efficient means of recognizing them. Briggs states:
"Because of the variations in policy, the
following principles are proposed for the
intermediate school; first it should sys-
tematically seek to aacertain the nature
and extent of individual differences of its
pupils; second, it should definitely decide
which of these from the point of view of pub-
lic good it is reasonable to seek to reduce
or destroy; third, it should adopt a defi-
nite policy as to providing education suit-
able to these differences which it cannot by
any reasonable expenditure of effort and
money hope to eradicate; fourth, it should
recognize that as a public school it owes to
each pupil a similar amount of attention
regardless of differences of various kinds."
What is the nature and extent of the individual dif-
ferences in the modern junior high school and how is their
recognition being effected by the school? In Chapter III
of this work a detailed study and comparison of the differ-
ences which have been found to exist among pupils attend-
ing the junior high school during the last decade will be
made. This study will be carried out by means of an analy-
sis of the literature dealing with this subject, especially
the reports of investigations made to discover these differ-
^Briggs, Thomas L. The Junior High School. Houghton,
Mifflin and Co. New York. 1920. p. 136.
ences, and by comparing such findings with those ob-
tained by an investigation of the differences existing
among the pupils of a typical modern junior high school.
An examination of the various means by which junior high
schools are seeking to provide for these differences will
also be made and a comparison of the reports of earlier
ajid later findings drawn in an effort to discover what
tendencies are present and what practices are gaining
greater recognition as the means of meeting this problem.
Perhaps the most pressing problem arising from
the individual differences of pupils is that of the proper
method of the recognition of the individual differences that
exist among pupils in ability, i.e., in the ability to do the
work of a given course. Several techniques are used in pro-
viding for these differences; homogeneous grouping, individ-
ual study plans, such as the Dalton and Winnetka plans, the
Morrison plan, differentiated assignments, special classes,
supervised study, and various others. In chapter IV, the
writer will undertake to study the more important experi-
ments dealing with tne classification of pupils according to
ability in the junior high school.
In presenting the results of this study no attempt
has been made to justify the fundamental assumption underly-
ing the adoption of ability grouping, namely, that differences
in ability can be more adequately provided for in homogeneous
f
than in heterogeneous groups. This fundamental problem
is one that must be solved by more experienced minds in
the field of education. Much has been said and many in-
vestigations have been undertaken in an attempt to furnish
5 6 7
the solution. Billet, Turney, and Douglas have dis-
cussed the results of these studies at length. Their con-
clusions may best be summarized by the statement of Billet
that "much controlled experimentation is necessary before
6
the question is adequately answered.
However, as will be shown later, homogeneous or
ability grouping is the most widely used means of providing
for individual differences in the junior high school. It is,
9
according to Billet, "a procedure born of the necessities of
a highly democratized system of education." Much experi-
mentation has been undertaken to determine the most accurate
method of classifying pupils into groups on the basis of abil-
ity. An examination of the more important experiments that
have been carried out in the junior high school grades will
be made with the purpose of determining which bases and meth-
^Billet, Roy 0. op. cit. Part I, Chapter I.
^Turney, Austin H. "The Status of Ability Grouping!* Edu-
cational Administration and Supervision 17:21-42 110-127.
January-February 1931
"^Douglass, Harl A. "certain Aspects of the Problem of.lfheTe
We Stand with Reference to the Practicability of Grouping.*'
Journal of Educational Research 26:344-353. January 1933.
°Billet, Roy 0. Op. cit. p. 17.
g
Billet, Roy 0. Op. cit. p. 16.
c
6
ode of classification have been found to classify pupils
most accurately, From the available data, likewise, the
reactions of teachers and pupils to the practice of abil-
ity grouping will be summarized and their general attitude
toward it reported.
In Chapter II, the functions of the Junior high
school and their relative importance will be discussed as
a consideration of these has an important bearing upon the
extent and importance of this problem.
f
CHAPTER II
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
In common with the other units of the public
school system, the junior high school has for its purpose
the performance of various functions looking toward the
realization of the aims and objectives of education. The
main objectives of education have been well stated by the
Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education of
the National Education Association as follows: (1) health,
(2) command of the fundamental processes , (3) worthy home
membership, (4) vocation, (5) citizenship, (6) worthy use of
leisure, (7) ethical character. An analysis of the many
ways in which the junior high school fulfills these functions
and the means this organization uses to attain these objec-
tives is beyond the scope of this work.
Certain functions have been attributed to the j un-
ior high school by authorities on the subject as being par-
ticularly applicable to this unit of the school system in
helping to realize the general aims of education. The jun-
ior high school is especially adapted to the performance of
these functions, because in the reorganized school system
'Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education United
States Bureau of Education Bulletin. No. 35. 1918. pp. 9-11.
this unit has been planned with these functions particularly
in mind. As a consequence, the grade organization, curricula,
extra-curricula activities and other featiores of the junior
high school are especially adapted to the carrying out of
these functions. In the remainder of this chapter the more
important of these functions and their bearing on the prob-
lem of individual differences will be discussed.
(a) The Functions of the Junior Hiph School
2
Koos made a survey of the available literature
dealing with the junior high school with the aim of discov-
ering the more common functions attributed to the new organ-
ization. Two types of literature were examined; (1) public
school documents such as city school reports, pamphlets is-
sued by the school authorities in description of the junior
high schools established in their communities, and other sim-
ilar materials usually prepared by the superintendent or prin-
cipal, and (2) statements of the aims, advantages or functions
of the junior high school by other educational leaders. The
latter group of statements appeared in articles or editorials
in educational periodicals, educational books, or reports of
school surveys. The former were secured by means of a circu-
lar letter sent to the superintendents of systems reported as
having introduced the junior high school or the 6-6 organiza-
tion. The results of this survey show that certain functions
Koos, Leonard V The Junior High School. Ginn and Co.
Hew York 1927. p. 15
--V
called the democratizing functions, namely: retention of pu-
pils, economy of time, recognition of individual differences,
exploration and guidance, beginnings of vocational education,
and the functions of recognizing the nature of the child at
adolescence, providing the conditions for better teaching,
sec-uring better scholarship, improving the disciplinary sit-
uation and socializing opportunities have received the widest
recognition in both classes of literature. Other functions
such as effecting financial economy, relieving the building
situation, continuing the influence of the home, hastening
reform in grades above and below, normalizing the size of
classes, and relieving teachers have less generally been
claimed to be peculiar to the junior high school.
The first five functions enumerated above have beoi
3
called the democratizing functions because, according to Koos, •
they contribute directly toward realizing a democratic school
system. Education cannot be democratized, according to this
writer, if pupils are to leave school as soon as the law per-
mits. Furthermore, greater equalization of educational oppor-
tunities will be realized if more pupils are able to receive
education of a secondary nature, and if individual differences
are provided for by the school. Finally exploration and guid-
ance, revealing to the pupil the direction in which his inter-
Koos, Leonard V. Op. cit. p. 15.
c
ISO
eets and capacities may best be developed, with provision
for a start in vocational training for those who probably
will leave school early, are essential factors in bringing
about a democratic school system.
4
Briggs collected the definitions of the junior
high school given by 68 leaders in the field of education,
and calculated the number of items appearing in the various
definitions and their frequency. The results of his tabu-
lation show that the following are the most frequently men-
tioned as essential functions of this type of organization;
Provisions for individual differences; departmental teaching;
retention in school; differentiated curricula; economy of time;
exploration of interests; attitudes and capacities; provisions
for adolescence; provisions for social interests; pre-voca-
tional training; educational guidance; vocational guidance; and
5
flexible curricula. Davis has summarized the objectives or
functions of the junior high as follows:
(1) To check the withdrawal of pupils from
the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades by providing
school work that is both more interesting and edu-
cationally more valuable than that offered by the
traditional school and by organizing and administer-
ing this work through methods that are more in keep-
ing with tne natures of adolescent pupils than are
methods commonly employed in the traditional elemen-
*Briggs, Thomas H. Op. Cit. p. 15
^Davis, Calvin 0. Junior High School Education, New York,
World Book Co. 1924. p. 102.
tary school and senior high school.
(2) To encourage and assist pupils to
discover their own permanent interests, and their
own reaches and limits of capacities, and their own
best modes of self-expression and then to assist
them to choose life careers in which (so far as en-
lightened human judgment is able to forecast) they
can be most happy and contented and at the same time
most socially effective and serviceable.
(3) To remove or at least to minimize the
personal and social dangers which inhere in the in-
stincts of adolescence and to convert raw potential-
ities into habits that make for good citizenship, works-
manship, and sportmanship.
(4) To shorten the period of training for some
few individuals who have before them a long course of
systematic schooling, by permitting them to begin their
differentiated education at an earlier period than has
been customary in the past.
(5) To provide a truly realistic education for
all youths between the ages of twelve and sixteen, and
while adapting this training to individual needs and
interests, so to administer it that each shall come to
possess at least an appreciated knowledge of all the
major activities of humanity and shall develop a toler-
ance and a symoathy for individuals outside his own
social group.
(6) To interweave pre-vocational instruction and
liberal culture so artfully that each shall have the
effect of clarifying, deepening, and making truly sig-
nificant and effective the elements of learning con-
tributed by the other.
A comparison of the various items of these formula-
tions reveals striking similarities. All three emphasize
the importance of the functions of retention of pupils , economy
of time, recognition of individual differences, exploration and
guidance, beginnings of vocational education, provisions for the
nature of the child at adolescence, departmental teaching, and
improving the disciplinary situation and socializing opportuni-
ties. These have been called the basic functions of the
r
4
12
junior high school since they are especially adapted to
the newer form of organization and can be carried out only
in the newer unit, or can be carried out better there than
in either the elementary or high school.
(b) The Basic Functions of the Junior High School
1. Retention of Pupils
The need for a reorganization to reduce the elim-
ination in the junior high school years has long been felt.
6
Inglis showed that the proportionate elimination in terms
of the percentage of those in each grade who do not enter
the succeeding grades is greatest between the ninth and
tenth grade. The next largest proportionate elimination is
between the eighth and ninth grades, and the seventh and eighth
grades. The elimination above the ninth grade, that is, be-
tween any two succeeding grades above the ninth, is relatively
inconsiderable.
Can the junior high school reduce this percentage of
7
elimination? Briggs states:
"That an institution which pupils enter before
the law permits them to go to work and which offers
them no convenient stopping point until the subjects
of secondary education have been explored and have
had a chance to make their appeal, an institution
which provides in several ways for individual differ-
ences, and which affords attractive and profitable
extra- curricula activities, is certainly likely to
hold pupils longer than one that does none of these
things . »
Whether the junior high school has actually proved
^Inglis, Alexander J principles of Secondary Education.
Houghton, Mifflin and Co. New York. 1918. n.llS.
?
Briggs, Thomas S. Op. cit. p. 71
1
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13
its retaining power ie not clearly evident though statis-
tics would seem to indicate this to be the case. Improved
economic conditions, social agencies outside the school, and
other forces have so operated to extend the period of school
attendance that it is difficult to determine whether they or
the reorganized school system are responsible for the reduced
elimination. The statistical studies that have been made,
however, indicate that the latter is at least partly respon-
sible.
(2) Economy of Time
To bring about a saving in time was one of the
main reasons for establishing the new organization. The
prevailing opinion was that too much time was spent in the
seventh and eighth grades of the elementary school upon fre-
quent and unnecessary reviews. This opinion was strength-
ened somewhat by a comparison of our system with various
European systems, in which the secondary school period began
about the sixth grade. The late President Eliot and his
supporters urged a revision largely on this ground, since
they felt that the young college graduates' professional
education was begun too late due to the unnecessary delay in
starting secondary school work.
Economy of time was thus originally conceived of as
Koos, Leonard V. Op. cit pp. 21-28.
14
the possibility of eliminating one or two years from the
9
secondary school period. Davis states the following:
"This notion, as has been shown, was notably
strong at the outset of the reorganization movement.
In the last few years, however, the idea has been
submerged, if not wholly abandoned. It is a
question whether the best interests of society
and boys and girls can be secured by reducing the
period of liberalizing education. It is possible
that great benefits may be secured by enriching
the program of studies and intensifying the
training of pupils thro'jghout the usual number
of scholastic years."
Davis says further that the idea of a saving of
time has not been entirely abandoned. That it has not been
entirely abandoned may be seen from an examination of the
10
articles by Pickell, writing of the situation in the
Cleveland junior high schools in which he advocates the
acceleration of bright pupils by means of homogeneous
11
grouping, and by McCoy who states that by the same means
and by beginning an elective in the seventh grade, two
groups or one-fifth of the total number of pupils could
have their junior high school training period cut to five
semesters.
9. Davis, Calvin 0. Op. cit. pg. b8
10. Pickell, Frank G. "Ability Grouping of Junior High
School Pupils in Cleveland."
Journal of Ed. Research 11: 244-53 April 1925.
11. McCoy, W. T. "Individual Differences in the Junior
High School. "
Chicago School Journal 12: 89 - 96 Nqv. 1929
15
Another conception of economy of time is that
of enrichment, that is, of enriching the training program
through a period of years of the same length as formerly,
by depressing into lower years certain content formerly
reserved for high school, or by introducing new and more
12
vital content drawn from other sources. Koos says that
this concept is much more important than the first, and
that it may be stated with some assurance that it cannot
be abandoned.
(3) Recognition of Individual Differences.
The recognition of individual differences is one
of the most important of the functions of the junior high
13
school. Koos shows that in a comparison of the order of
importance of the peculiar functions of the junior high,
as determined by the average ranking of 124 judges, this
function ranked first. That there exists wide variation
among the pupils of the junior high schools is abundantly
evident; it only remains to show the nature and extent
14
of these differences. Briggs states that there are at
early adolescence many kinds of individual differences,
some due to nature and some to nurture. Briefly stated
12. Koos, Leonard V. Op. Cit. pg. 35
13. Koos, Leonard V. Op. Cit. pg. 117
14. Briggs, Thomas L. Op. Cit. pg. 135
c
16
they are of race, sex, age, physical development, health,
intellectual inheritance and training, interests, tastes,
and aptitudes, environment, family traditions, social and
economic status, aspirations, probable future schooling,
and command of the English language.
In the next chapter, the writer will present
the results of a study of the individual differences of
pupils in the junior high school grades and will attempt
to show the extent and nature of the more important
differences from an educational viewpoint.
While the fact of the existence of individual
differences has been well understood, the problem of
providing for them has proved a difficult one.
Differentiated curricula have to a large extent solved
this problem in the later years of the junior high school,
but in the seventh grade particularly and in those subjects,
such as English and social science, which are commonly
taken by all pupils, the solution has not been so easy.
Koos lists (1) the expended differentiation of work
through partially variable curricula, (2) promotion by
subject, (3) permitting brighter pupils to carry more
courses, (4) supervised study as the methods by which the
junior high school can provide the proper recognition. To
that may be added the varrious unit assignment plans, as
15. Kooe, Leonard V. Op. Git. pg. 50
17
the Morrison, Dplton, and Winnetka plane, and the various
forme of differentiated assignments. The particular plan
or combination of plans best suited to solve this problem
is a matter of much dispute. In chapter IV of this work,
a study of homogeneous grouping, at present the most
commonly used method of providing for individual differences
will be undertaken.
(4) Exploration smd Guidance.
Guidance, both educational and vocational, was
not originally conceived to equal in importance certain
other functions of the junior high school In recent years,
however, the importance of this function has received more
16
recognition. DaVis states that:
"Of all the functions of the junior high school,
that which seeks to aid pupils in discovering their
own capacities and limitations, intereste and dis-
tastes, powers and weaknesses, is in the judgment
of the writer the most important. It is this
function, above all others, that justifies the
reorganization of schools on a new basis."
17
Glass an authority on this subject exemplifies
the modern viewpoint. He states that the method of the
junior high school is guidance, and upon its method more
than upon its organization and objectives will depend its
fullest progress. He continues:
16. DaVis, Calvin 0. Op. Git. pg. 99
17. Glass, James M. "The Junior High School." The New
Republic. Vol. XXXVI Part II No. 466 Nqv. 7,1923
Educational Section PP 20 - 21
t
"The junior high school has been variously
entitled as the finding, the sorting, the trying
out, and testing period of the public school
system. It is a probationary period before the
vital question of educational or vocational
choice is finally determined. Explorations of
individual differences, the revelation of
educational and vocational opportunities,
adapted to individual differences, guidance of
educational or vocational choice, equalization
of opportunities, the adaptation of educational
offerings to ascertained individual needs rather
than the conforming of pupils to one educational
pattern, and the stimulation of educational or
vocational vision wnich conditions all progress
in secondary education, all these and other
p'orposes to adapt the educational program to
the individual are the objectives of the junior
high school. "
What means shall the school use to provide such
18
exploration ajid guidance^ Koos answers this question as
follows :
"We shall need to have a thoro^jgh going
organization in the grades under discussion,
before we may canvass the child's abilities and
interests satisfactorily or permit him to test
them out. This parpose may not be accomplished
without a much enriched and enlarged program of
studies, including a wide range of academic and
practical -art^s subjects, administered with the
performance of this function, specifically in
mind. Nor may we accomplish it without teachers
who, being more in the nature of specialists in
the lines they are teaching, have had more
generous contacts with the world's work and the
relations of their subject to it than have most
of our elementary school teachers. With such a
program and sucli teacher?, it will be possible
for the child to become acquainted, through
participation and vicariously, with the chief
18. Koos, Leonard V. Od» Cit. pg. 56.
19
departments of human knowledge and activity.
By adding to these such features of school
machinery as mental and vocational testing,
a wide range of student activities and an
adSquate organization for guidance in the
narrower sense, the enhanced possibilities
for exploration and guidance in the junior
high school become still more apparent.
Altho^ogh these and the kind of program
referred to are not yet frequently introduced
into schools so named, the movement is
distinctly in that direction."
( 5) Provision of the Beginnings of Vocational Education.
This function is dependent uoon and is the natural
19
outcome of the function just discussed. Koos states that:
"Proper opportunities for exploration
thus constitute, especially if the methods and
processes of industry are illustrated, a sort
of general vocational education, which is the
by-product of the achievement of another important
function. This measure of vocational education
meets with little or no objection."
The original conception of this function, however, was that
it would afford specialized training for those nupils who
20
would leave school at the ages of 14 or 16. Briggs says
that :
"As shown elsewhere, there is widespread
approval of specific trade training in American
junior high schools for pupils, especially those
over-aged who cannot be retained by any other
means and who have determined on an early entrance
to wage-earning."
19. Koos, Leonard V. Op. Cit. pg. 58
20. Briggs, Thomas L. Op. Cit. pg. 41
' -f • -
20
This original conception, however, has changed
in recent years for several reasons. The most important
of these is the fact that pupils enrolled in the junior
high school are too immature to enter upon specific
vocational training. Another important reason is the
impossibility of providing adequate specific vocational
training for the large number of diverse interests to be
21
found in the junior high school. As Koos says:
"The conviction grows that the junior high school
is not typically a place for this kind of training.
This conviction is upheld by the fact of improved
promotional rates helping to keep down the amount
of overageness, and the improved retention of
pupils wnich is holding pupils into senior high
school grades where opportunities for specializa^-
tion are more and more being provided. It is
nevertheless vital to ward off the opposite
belief now sometimes held that junior high schools
should always refrain from giving training for
specialization. The best interests of the given
group of pupils must always be the chief
criterion, and in some localities, as has al-
ready been emphasized, these may call for
specialized training for those who are over-age
or who for other reasons must leave school before
or near the end of the junior high school period."
(6) Provisions for Adolescence..
It is well known that the years from 12 to 16 are
years of rapid development for the majority of children.
As will be shown in the next chapter, there are marked
21. Koos, Leonard V. Op. Cit. P. 61
f
21
changes in height, weight, and intellectual capacity. For
most children this is the time of the arrival of pubescence.
23
Other characteristics of tnie period, according to Davis,
are an intense emotional development, the development of
the instincts of gregariousness , venturesomeness , explora-
tion, migration, organization, cooperation, and domination.
The fundamental problem of adolescence to the
educator is to determine what methods of organization and
administration of schools will produce valuable results
in providing for the adolescent characteristics.
22
Koos states!
"that the school reforms of this period must
include a physical education that takes cog-
nizance of the differences in physique between
boys and girls and the rapidly increasing
strength of the former. They may not ignore
opportuneness at this time of sex education.
They must recognize the fact that the pupil
now rapidly approaching maturity will become
increasingly impatient unless given a meatier
mental diet than is provided in the conventional
school — that his enlarging social consciousness
will be better satisfied by the materials of a
functional education, rich in social, civic, and
vocational interests than by the repetition of
the preliminaries of an education. Nor can they
neglect to provide opportunities for participation
in a well-banned and efficiently directed social
organization of the school that will allow for
expression of the pupils social impulses. They
must not ignore adolescence as a period of moral
guidance and inspiration. As most of these
reforms are next to impossible in the traditional
22, Koos, Leonard V. Op. Cit. Chapter III
23. Davis, Calvin 0, Op, Cit, p. 84
22
organization, we must look to the junior high echool
to bring them and then to perform the function of
recognizing the nat^ore of the adolescent child."
(6) Departmental Teaching,
This function is generally advocated on the ground^
that it provides the conditions for better teaching. The
chief arguments in favor of departmentalization are that it
attracts specially trained teachers to work in these grades,
and secondly that it is impossible for one teacher to handle
the entire situation and subject-matter in one grade as in
the elementary school. F^orthermore departmentalization
allows promotion by subject so that a teacher is not handi-
capped by pupils who are misplaced in some subjects, while
the pupil in turn is not compelled to repeat subjects which
he has already passed. In addition, departmentalization
provides for training in special subjects such as art and
music without disrupting the program.
Departmentalization, however, should not be begun
immediately and completely. It should be gradually intro-
24
duced. Briggs states that:
"the cure for a bad condition seems to be the
gradual introduction of the desired or necessary
departmentalization, a beginning being made in
the "special subjects" perhaps as early as the
third grade, with an extension to the academic
subjects in the seventh year: Full departmental-
ization is not likely to be necessary before the
ninth grade . "
(7) Improving the Disciplinary Situation and Socializing
Opport^jni ties .
It is a matter of common knowledge that discipline
24. Briggs, Thomas L. Op. cit. p. 131
23
is difficult to secure under the one-teacher regimen of
the upper grade of the elementary school. The testimony
of the majority is that, although the problems of disci-
pline are not entirely eliminated they are greatly re-
duced by the junior high school due to frequent change
of class-room and teacher, and to the adoption of subjects
and curricula embracing activities more interesting and
challenging to the pupil.
The socializing opportunities are increased
through bringing the pupil into touch with a number of
teachers, each of whom will bring to him something which
a single personality cannot offer. With the union of
the upper grades of the grammax school and the ninth grade
of the high school we have a group that is more nearly ho-
mogeneous in age ajid interests so that a greater use can
be made of the social, recreational, and athletic organiza-
tion of the school than would be the case for either of
these groups in the traditional system.
The foregoing are the more important functions of
the junior high school and the means generally advocated for
carrying them out. There are other functions such as ef-
fecting financial economy, relieving the building situation,
satisfaction of comm^anity needs end others, but they are of
secondary importance from an educational standpoint.
It may readily be seen that the functions here die-
CI
24
cuseed are closely interrelated. The functions of explor-
ation and guidance and recognition of individual differences
are complementary inasmuch as it is impossible to recognize
individual differences until they have first been discovered.
25
Moreover, as stated by Koos:
'•Other instances of such interrelation are the
tendency to retain pupils following the recognition
of individual differences, the economy of time re-
sulting from the improvement of teaching, or the
bettered disciplinary situation accompanying the rec-
ognition of the nature of the child and the recogni-
tion of individual differences."
Recognition of individual differences is thus seen
to have an important bearing upon the remaining functions of
the junior high school. It is clear that better conditions
for teaching are not being provided if no provision is made
for individual differences in learning rate or capacity.
Nor will economy of time result if all pupils are offered the
same subjects and courses regardless of their individual in-
terests, aptitudes, and capacities. Nor are we recognizing
the nature of the child at adolescence if we do not take into
consideration individual differences in age, and individual
differences in physical, social, and physiological maturity
with their accompanying rapid development of social and men-
tal traits resulting in increased social, economic, and vo-
cational interests, that are characteristic of this period.
26
Indeed, if we accept Glass* description of the
Koos, Leonard V. Op- cit. p. 113
'Glass, James M. Op. cit. pp. 20-21
0
25
junior high school as the finding, sorting, and testing
period of the public school system, we must consider the
problem of individual differences as fundamentally related
to all features and activities of the junior high school.
The need of the junior high school, therefore,
for discovering the individual differences of its school
population is clear. It must have adequate information
of the nature and extent of these individual differences
before suitable efforts to provide the proper means for
their recognition can be made. An examination of the
range, nature, and tendencies of individual variation
among modern junior high school pupils should serve a use-
ful purpose in furnishing a clearer picture to those inter-
ested in this organization of the individual differences
characteristic of its pupils. Especially is this true in
view of the fact that the school population is becoming more
heterogeneous due to increased enrollments. Such a picture
will be of assistance in demonstrating the necessity of pro-
viding for these individual differences, and in determining
the means necessary for such provisions.
o
CHAPTER III
THE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES OF JUNiqr hiqh SCHOOL PUPILS
It iB obvious even to the casual observer that
school children, especially at the adolescent period, vary
in many ways. Variation in height, weight, and physical
development are perhaps most readily apparent. Pupils,
however, differ from one another in many other respects,
some of which such as differences intellectual capacity,
or musical or artistic ability are not so easily perceived.
1
According to Briggs:
"An analysis of individual differences at early
adolescence shows that they are of many kinds — some
due to nature and some due to nurture. Briefly
stated they are of race, sex, age, physical develop-
ment, health, intellectual inheritance and training,
tastes and aptitudes, environment, family traditions,
social and economic status, aspirations, probable
future schooling and command of the English language."
To what extent do pupils in the junior high school
vary in each of these characteristics, and is there any evi-
dence that variation is becoming greater as the school popu-
lation grows? In the remainder of this chapter the writer
shall attempt to furnish answers to these questions.
1
Briggs, Thomas H- Op. cit. p. 135
27
(a) Age
Probably the most important of the differences
existing among pupils of the junior high school from an
educational standpoint is that of SLge An examination
of the enrollment records of a typical junior high school
shows wide variation in the ages of the pupils. Even in
a single grade a difference of from 3 to 5 years or more
will be found to exist between the youngest and oldest
groups of pupils.
In order to secure more information on the ex-
tent of the individual differences in these grades, the
writer made an examination of the ages and intelligence
quotients of 1067 pupils in grades VII, VIII, and IX of
the Belmont Junior High School, Belmont, Massachusetts.
The distributions of the pupils according to these two
items was obtained from the records of the pupils through
the courtesy of the officials of the school.
Table I shows the distribution of these pupils
according to age. An examination of the table discloses
that ages in grade VII range from 10 years to fifteen years
with a difference of five yeaxe between the youngest and
oldest groups of pupils. The median age for this grade
is 12.5 years. In grade VIII, the range extends from 11
years to 16 years, again disclosing a difference of 5 years
between the two extremes. The median for the grade was
r
28
found to be 13.7 years. In grade IX, the range extends
from 12 years to 18 years with the median age 14.6 years.
TABLE I DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO AGE OF 1067 PUPILS
OF THE BELMONT (MASS.) JUNIOR HIGH dCHOOL
AGES ^10 n 12 l3 l4 IB 16 1? I8~
Grade VII 5 48 198 95 39 10
"VIII 3 84 187 67 20 6
« IX 4 72 150 48 22 8 1
Total 5 51 286 354 256 78 28 8 ~
In 1929 Clem and Malloy completed a study of the
individual differences of 776 pupils of the Roosevelt Jun-
ior High School, Syracuse, New York. Table II indicates
TABLE II SHOWING THE AGES OF PUPILS OF THE ROOSEVELT
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL (SYRACUSE, N.Y.)
ACCORDING TO GRADES 2
AGES lO n 12 13 I4 l5 16 T? 18
Grade
VI I- 1
1
22
90
32
10
2
N
VI 1-2
4
49
39
33
11
1
1
1
N
VIII-1
1
23
69
37
15
14
2
n
VIII-2
1
6
53
37
26
9
4
H
IX-1
2
20
52
26
8
3
It
IX-2
5
32
20
3
2
Total
1
30
193
277
163
65
19
7
1
'^Clem, Orlie K. and Malloy, D. V. Some Individual
Differences of Pupils in One Typical Junior High School.
Educational Administration and Supervision 16:39-52
Jan. 1930. p. 40
OX
29
tiie age of these pupils according to grades. It shows that
the mean age in grade VII is 12 years; in grade VIII, 13
years; and in grade IX, 14 years. It also shows that the
youngest pupil is 10 years old and the oldest, a pupil in
grade VII-2, 18 years, revealing a difference of 8 years
in age and of one term in school work.
3
Powers made a study of the pupils enrolled in
grades VII, VIII, and IX of the Minneapolis Jmior High
Scnools in 1923-4. In table III, the distribution by ages
of the pupils is shown.
TABLE III NIMERICAL AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION BY AGES
OF 14,594 PUPILS ENROLLED IN GRADES VII,
VIII, AND IX OF THE MINNEAPOLIS
SCHOOLS, 1923-4.4
AGE
PER CENT
AGE
NUMBER PER CENT
94
1
0
14
2154
14.8
10
4
0.0
14i
1962
13.4
10^
33
0.2
15
1574
10.3
11
143
1.0
15-^
838
5.7
12
938
6.4
16
535
3.7
12i
1617
11.1
16-^
201
1.7
13
1757
12.0
17
90
O.S
13^
2151
14.7
17i
29
0.2
18
33
0.2
In Table
IV the distribution of
the ages of
the
Belmont
and Roosevelt Junior
High Schools
by number and
per cent
are shown.
A comparison of the
fig'ores shown in Table
IV
reveals
that the proportions
of each age
represented
in the
•^Powers, J.Orin Instructional Outcomes in Junior High
Schools. University of Minnesota Press. 1927
%oo s, Leonard V. Op. cit. p. 82
30
two junior high schools are similar. They also reveal
no marked departure from the trend shown in the figures
secured by Powers, though there is a slight decrease in
the percentage of over-age pupils, — pupils 16 years or
over — in the latter two groups. This may be an indica-
tion of the tendency of "improved promotional rates help-
TABLE IV NUMERICAI AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION BY AGES
OF 106? PUPILS OF THE BELMONT (MASS.) JUN-
IOR HIGH SCHOOL, AND OF 776 PUPILS OF
THE ROOSEVELT (SYRACUSE, N.Y.)
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Be Imont
Junior High
School
Roosevelt Junior High School
Age
Number
Per Cent
Age
Number
Per Cent
10
5
0.004
10
1
0.0
11
51
0.049
11
28
0.36
12
286
0.246
12
170
0.230
13
354
0.322
13
218
0.283
14
256
0.240
14
201
0.269
15
78
0.073
15
100
0.128
16
28
0.025
16
25
0.032
17
8
0.0075
17
12
0.015
18
1
0.0
18
1
0.0
ing to keep down the amount of over-ageness , and the improved
retention which is holding pupils into the senior-high grades"
5
which Koos claimed to be increasingly apparent, although the
decrease is not substantial enough to warrant a definite con-
clusion.
Koos, Leonard V. Op. cit. p. 61
/d // /i /3 /V ^ff
Fjjvre A 0istrJi)t>t/o7? ffy /ijas 0^ 39r PdjojZs X-yi
Gt^4e^ B6rl7»67tt (Af^SS) Jvrjior Hi^h School
o
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/a. /3 /y /4> /? /f
Fi^vre 3. Distn bvtioTi B/A^^S Os- 3or Popils Iff
GracLeJX: Of- The BelTnontC/yi^SS:) Jvnior Htjk^Gfi^dl.
c
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/90
9^ /sr //V /j'^
o
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^ /JLA
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¥6
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rr //^ z^^"
c
MO
/id
J7d
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/fo
/36
JJLO
J/0
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36
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9^ / /r /3f /rr
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fijvr-e C. Pi^tt-ibvt/07)^ 4ccor4iyiJ To T 0;f 3o^ Pvp/2s
31
(b) Physical Development
Investigation has shown that these differences
are parallelled by differences in height, weight, strength
of grip, lung capacity, and other physical measureinents ,
and also by differences in the degree of sexual maturity.
Table V shows the acceleration in height according to age
of boys and girls in certain American city school systems.
An examination of this table shows that boys from 10 years
of age to 18 years differ for each year from one-half to
two and one-half inches, the average difference being al-
most two inches. Girls from 9 years of age to 17 years
differ for each year from one-half to two and one-half
TABLE V AVERAGE HEIGHT OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN CERTAIN
AMERICAN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS
Approximate Average Age
Average
Boys
in inches
Girls
5.5
41.7
41.3
6.5
43.9
43.3
7.5
46.0
45.7
8.5
48.8
47.7
9.5
50.0
49.7
10 5
51.9
51.7
11.5
53.6
53.8
12.5
55.4
56.1
13.5
57.5
58.5
14.5
60.0
60.4
15.5
62.9
61.6
16.5
64.9
62.2
17.5
66.5
62.7
18.5
67.4
inches with the average difference a little over one and one-
half inches. Thus between children differing by two or three
Bark, Frederic L. (citing from Franz Boar) "Crro'rth of
Children in Height and Weight" American Jo^ornal of Psychol-
ogy (Aoril 1898) Vol. IX. P. 262
o
32
years, there may be differences of one to seven and one
half inches or more in the ;)unior high school grades.
TABLE VI. PERCENTAGES OF 3825 BOYS (1) PREPUBESCENT,
(S) PUBESCENT, (3) POSTPUBESCENT, (4) PU-
BESCENT AND POSTPUBESCENT (COMBINED' BY
HALF-
YEARS FROM TWELVE AND ONE-
FOURTH
TO SEVENTEEN AND
TnRliE-r OURTnS
YEARS
OF
AGE '
Pre-
Post-
ruDe scent and
Age
pubescent
Pubescent
Pubescent
Postpubescent
12.25
Si
16
2
18
12.75
69
25
6
31
13.25
55
26
18
44
13.75
41
28
31
59
14.25
26
28
46
74
14.75
16
24
60
84
15.25
9
20
70
90
15.75
5
10
85
95
16.25
2
4
93
97
16.75
1
4
95
99
17.25
2
98
100
17.75
100
100
The investigations of Baldwin and Crampton show
the relation between the stage of physical maturity the pupil
has reached and his age. An examination of their findings
as shown in tables VI and VII reveals that a small percentage
of boys at 12 years of age have already arrived at puberty
while others at seventeen years have not reached this stage
of development. For girls, this period begins somewhat earlier,
Crampton, C- Y. "Physiological Age — A Fundamental Prin-
ciple" American Physical Education Review (March, 1908)
Vol. XIII, T), 150
G
C
35
some pupils at IC years already having entered upon this
period of physiological change, while others at 16 years
have not begun to experience the physical change charac-
teristic of approaching sexual maturity.
TABLE VII PERCENTAGES OF 1241 GIRLS (i; PREPUBESCENT ,
(2) PUBESCENT, (3) POSTPUBESCENT, AND
(4) PUBESCENT AND POSTPUBESCENT (COM-
BINED) BY HALF-YEARS FROM TEN AND
ONE-HALF TO SIXTEEN AND ONE-HALF
YEARS OF AGEO
Pre-
Post-
Pubescent and
Age
pubescent
Pubescent
pubescent
Postpubescent
10.5
93.75
6.25
0.00
6.25
11.0
100.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
11.5
78.84
19.23
1.92
21.15
12.0
62.06
37.93
0.00
37.93
12.5
58.20
23.88
17.91
41.79
13.0
39.53
34.88
25.58
60.46
13.5
15.15
37.87
49.96
84.83
14.0
15.38
38.46
46.15
84.61
14.5
4.83
17.74
77.42
95.61
15.0
0.00
14.54
85.45
99.99
15.5
1.55
7.81
90.62
98.43
16.0
2.04
6.12
91.83
97.95
16.5
0.00
3. 17
96.83
100.00
It is easily seen, therefore, that pupils in the junior high
school may be five or six years more advanced as regards phy-
sical maturity than others in the same grade.
Children in these grades differ also in the matter
of health, freedom from physical defects, and other constitu-
tional traits. Table VIII shows the general health status of
g ___________
Baldwin, Bird T. "A Measuring Scale for Physical Growth
and Physiological Age" Fifteenth Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education. 1916. Part 1, p. 17
r
c
34
the pupils of the Roosevelt Junior High School as deter-
mined by Clem and Malloy. Of the 776 pupils, 587 or
75.6 per cent are in good health; 691 or 89 per cent have
had the measles; 559 or 72 per cent have had the mumps;
381 or 49 per cent have had scarlet fever; 611 or 78.6
per cent have had chicken pox; 39 or 5 per cent have had
typhoid; 152 or 19.5 per cent have had diptheria; 27 or
3.4 per cent have had infantile paralysis.
TABLE VIII SHOWING GENERAL HEALTH OF PUPILS; PRESENCE
OF PHYSICAL DEFECTS; AND DISEASES HAD BY
PUPILS OF THE ROOSEVELT JUNIOR HIGH
SCHOOL^
General Health
Physical Defects
Diseases
VII-1
VI 1-2
VIII-1
VIII-2
IX-1
IX-2
Good
115
116
128
123
62
43
Fair
34
20
17
26
32
14
Poor
8
3
6
7
17
5
Tonsils
13
18
17
11
6
3
Teeth
17
20
21
17
9
7
Glands
6
3
2
6
3
1
Sight
57
27
32
19
13
11
Hearing
16
8
5
7
3
2
Defective
Speech
10
4
6
3
7
2
Lungs
7
6
5
7
3
2
Heart
4
3
6
9
7
3
Adenoids
12
17
11
23
12
9
Skin
3
4
5
7
3
1
Nervous
Disorders
4
8
9
14
11
3
Kidneys
2
3
2
3
2
1
Goitre
6
11
9
17
16
9
Measles
127
135
123
143
107
56
Mumps
93
97
102
127
93
47
9
Clem, Orlie
M. and Malloy,
K. V.
Op. cit.
p. 41
c
3&
( c) Mental Differences
One of the most significant facts revealed by a
study of individual differences is the wide variation in
intellectual capacity existing among pupils in the junior
high school. An examination of tne records of pupils In
these grades shows a remarkable range of differences in men-
tal ability. In table IX is shown the distribution of pu-
pils according to Intelligence Quotients derived from the
Kuhlman- Anders on Intelligence Test as obtained by the writer
from an examination of the pupils' records. In grade VII
Intelligence quotients ranged from 69 to 152 with the median
score 101. In grade VIII, the range extends from 68 to 146
with the median I. Q. 102. In grade IX, in a group of 305
pupils, the range extends from 71 to 149 with the median at
104.
TABLE IX DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS ACCORDING TO INTELLIGENCE
QUOTIEIvTTS liJ THE BELMONT (MASS.) JUNIOR HIGH
SCHOOL
Intelligence quotients
Grades 55-75 75-95 95-115 115-135 135-155
Grade VII 9 136 184 60 6
"VIII 8 126 158 66 8
" IX 5 74 154 66 6
Total 22 336 496 152 5^
Theisen reports the results of classification of pupils
about to enter grades VII-B of the Cleveland Junior High Schools
in January, 1920. Preparatory to classification, the pupils
36
were given the Illinois Intelligence Test. The results
were utilized by the junior high school principals in ar-
ranging them into VII-B groups of different ability as
they entered the junior high school on January 31. The
results of the test and the classification groups are giv-
en in table X.
TABLE X MEDIAN CLASS SCORES BY GROUPS AND DISTRIBUTION
BY GROUPS OF PUPILS ACCORDING TO SCORES ON
ILLINOIS INTELLIGENCE TEST IN GRADE VII-B
OF THE CLEVELAND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS,
1920 . 10
Illinois Intelligence Median
Score Number of Classes Class Score
82 and up 12 86
72-82 13 75
67-72 9 69
62-67 15 65
52-62 15 56
Below 62 10 48
After the results of the tests had been tabulated by
classes, the records were arranged according to the class intel-
ligence score. All classes with an intelligence score of 82 and
up were placed in group 1; between 72 and 82 in group II; Be-
tween 67 and 72 in group III; between 62 and 67 in group IV;
Between 52 and 62 in group V; and below 52 in group VI. The
score of the median class in group I was 86 with 12 classes rep-
resented ; in group II, 75, with 13 classes; 69 in group III
with 9 classes; 65 in group IV, with 15 classes; 56 in group V,
with 12 classes; snd 48 in group VT, With 10 classes. Consider-
ing the two extremes we see that the score of the median class in
^^Tfeeisen, W. W. "The Relative Progress of VII-B groups Sec-
tioned on the Basis of Ability" Journal of Educational Research
5:295-305. April, 1922. P. 295
c
37
group 1 is, therefore, twice that of the score in the low-
est group.
In Septemher, 1924, the Otis Classification Test
was given to all children entering the public schools of
Chicago, for the purpose of classifying the pupils into
homogeneous groups. Table XI shows the distribution of
pupils in grades VII and VIII. In grade VII-E, the scores
range from 0 to 170 and in the other grades from 0 to 160.
This represents a score in grade level from second grade to
senior high school.
TABLE XI DISTRIBUTION OF JUNiqr HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS ACCORD-
ING TO SCORES ON THE OTIS CLASSIFICATION TEST.
SEPTEMBER, 192411
Classification Score ,
VII-A
VII-B
VIII-A
VIII-B
170
1
160
1
2
3
8
150
11
9
15
18
140
9
18
38
55
130
34
49
79
70
120
46
75
112
113
110
85
114
139
128
100
180
162
199
105
90
202
137
188
84
80
214
163
123
63
70
180
104
62
58
60
157
105
45
33
40
111
75
30
18
40
60
20
12
4
30
30
20
5
2
20
21
5
4
1
10
2
3
2
8
0
2
3
3
2
Keener, E. E. "Results of Homogeneous Classification
of Junior High School Pupils." Journal of Educational Re-
search 14:14-20. Jan. 1926. p. 15
c
I
38
In table XII ie shown the range of intelligence
quotients of pupils enrolled in the Isaac E. Young Junior
High School of New Rochelle, N.Y. The range of I.Q. 's and
the mode for each of 11 home-room sections are given together
with the number of pupils in each section. The range of scores
TABLE XII DISTRIBUTION OF INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS ACCORDING
TO HOME ROOM IN GRADE IX OF THE I.E. YOUNG
(NEW ROCHELLE, N.Y.) JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL,
1929-3012
Section Number
Enrollment
Probable Learning Rate (I. 0.)
Boys
Girls
Mode
Range
9-209
15
14
135
106-154
9-208
17
10
120
115-139
9-213
16
14
110
110-129
9-216
12
18
110
90-122
9-211
16
14
110
90-122
9-115
17
12
100
93-114
9-111
28
0
90
87-108
9-215
13
30
90
80-112
9-121
13
12
90
79-103
9-120
11
14
80
75-93
9-210
14
8
80
68-104
for the entire
grade extends from
68 to 154 with a distribution,
as indicated by
the
! modes
of the
various sections, that is fairly
regular. A comparison of
the scores for this
grade with those
of grade IX of
the
Belmont
Junior
High School
reveals a striking
similarity both
as
to range and distribution.
The intelligence
quotients represented in table XII are those of pupils enrolled
in junior high school during the school year 1929-30; while those
Ljrman, R. S. "Individualization in the Isaac E. Young
Junior High School." School Review 39:257-71. April 1931
r
<
39
of table IX are the scores of pupils enrolled in school for
the year 1933-34. The considerable number of scores in the
lower groups in both cases furnishes convincing evidence
not only of the retentive power of the junior high school
but also of the tendency of the differences in mental capac-
ity between the group extremes to become greater as the
school population grows.
The foregoing data illustrate the wide range of
mental ability in the junior high school and demonstrate con-
clusively the problem of providing for this variation.
( d) Differences in Achievement
As might be expected, such great diversity in intel-
lectual capacity is closely related to varying levels of
achievement. Investigation has revealed wide variation in
TABLE XIII MEDIAN CLASS SCORES BY INTELLIGENCE GROUPS OF
PUPILS IN GRADE VII-B OF THE CLEVELAND JUN-
IOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE (1) STONE ARITH-
METIC (2)M0NR0E READING, AND (3) CHARTERS
LANGUAGE TESTS, 1920l3
Illinois Stone Monroe Reading Charters '
Intelligence Arithmetic Language
Score Comprehension Rate
82 and up 7.0 fl2)* 32.3 (11) 133 (10) 21.1 (12}
78-82 6.6 (13) 26.8 (13) 133 (10) 18.8 (12)
67-72 6.1 (9) 23.8 (8) 133 (7) 16.7 (8)
62-67 5.6 (15) 21.5 (12) 115 (9) 15.8 (12)
52-62 5.1 (15) 21.5 (12) 115 (8) 14.0 (14)
Below 62 4.6 (10) 18.0 (9) 101 (8) 15.8 (10)
•Figure in parentheses indicates number of classes represented
Theisen, W. W. Op. cit. p. 296
.)
. J
c
40
the achievement of pupils in silent reading, arithmetic,
reading comprehension, language comprehension, and vocab-
ulary control. Theisen reports the results of classify-
ing pupils into different VII-B groups on the basis of
ability, in the Cleveland junior high schools. The pu-
pils were given the Illinois Intelligence Test in January
1920. The results were utilized in classifying the pu-
pils into sections on the basis of ability upon their en-
trance to the jiinior high school. In June of the same
year the different sections were tested with the Stone
Reasoning Test in arithmetic, the Monroe Reading Test, Form
11, and the Charters* Langusige Test. The median class
score for each group is given in table XIII.
In arithmetic, the median class in the lowest in-
telligence group scored 7.0, a difference equivalent approx-
imately to one and one-half years progress.. In reading,
the median class of the lowest intelligence group scored 18.0
in comprehension and 101 in rate in contrast to 32.3 and 133
respectively for the median class of the brightest group of
classes, a difference equivalent to more than two years of
work. In language the scores made by the median classes were
13.8 for the lowest and 21.1 for the brightest intelligence
group, a difference again equivalent to more than two years of
progress.. Thus we see that the average class of highest in-
telligence was in no case less than three semesters ahead of
t
9
41
the average class in the lowest intelligence group.
Table XIV shows the range of achievement in si-
lent reading and vocabulary control of pupils grouped into
sections on the basis of intelligence in the Isaac E. Young
Junior High School. In silent reading the Gates Silent
Reading Test was used, and the Inglis and New Rochelle vo-
cabulary tests were used to determine the proficiency of
pupils in vocabulary control. The results show that the pu-
TABLE XIV RANGE AND MODE OF SCORES IN SILENT READING AND
VOCABULAFY CONTROL OF NINTH GRADE SECTIONS
IN THE ISAAC E. YOUNG JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLI^
Silent
Reading
Score in Test of
Section
Enrollment
Score
Vocabulary Control
Number
Boys
Girls
Mode
Range
Mode Range
9-209
15
14
ll
9-11
12 9 to college
9-208
17
10
11
7-11
10 9 to college
9-213
16
14
10
7-11
9 9 to 12
9-216
12
19
8
7-11
9 7 to 11
9-211
16
14
8
7-11
9 7 to 11
9-115
17 .
12
9
6-10
8 6 to 10
9-111
28
0
5
4-6
7 5-to 10
9-215
13
30
9
6-10
9 6 to 10
9-121
13
12
8
5-11
8 5 to 11
9-120
13
12
7
7-11
8 6 to 20
9-210
14
8
1
4-9
7 4 to 11
pi Is • ability in
silent
re adi ng
ranged from the 4th to the 11th
grade level, and
in vocabulary
control from the fourth grade to
the college level.
A comparison (
of the results of
the New Rochelle and
Cleveland
teste
indicates that
there is a
strong tendency for
Lyman, R.
S. Op
. cit .
p. 259
/
0
42
differences in achievement to become greater as pupils ad-
vance through the junior high schools.
(e) Interests, Tastes, and Aoti tudes
That pupils vary widely in interests, tastes, and
aptitudes has also been shown. The study of Clem and Mal-
loy in which the individual differences of 776 pupils in the
junior high school were ascertained by means of a Question-
naire submitted to the pupils, disclosed a large variation
in likes, interests, preferences, and future plans.
Table XV shows the future school plans of the pu-
pils of the Roosevelt Junior High School. According to the
TABLE XV SHOEING FUTURE SCHOOL PLANS OF PUPILS OF TKE
ROOSEVELT (SYRACUSE, N.Y.) JUNIOR HIGH SCKOOL^^
School Graduate Senror"TOgh
Grade Next Year Cen- Voca- North Bus.
tral tional College
Yes No Yes No '
VII-1 157 0 157 S I23 34 D 0
VII- 2 123 16 120 19 116 4 0 0
VIII- 1 140 11 127 24 63 46 10 8
VIII- 2 , 121 35 116 40 75 37 0 4
IX- 1 92 19 87 24 82 40 0 5
IX-2 .53 9 57 5 52 5 0 0
table 85.5 per cent plan to graduate; 65.8 per cent plan to
enter Central High School for senior work; 21.3 per cent plan
to enter vocational school; 1.2 per cent plan to enter Senior
High School; 2.1 per cent plan to go to business college.
Clem, Orlie M. and Malloy, Kathie V. Op. cit. p. 49
(
c
43
Table XVI shows the preferences of the same pu-
pils for the veuiouB school subjects. Shop work, home-
making, and mathematics are the most popular courses in
terms of pupils likes and dislikes.
TABLE XVI SHOWING PREFERENCE OF PUPILS OF THE ROOSEVELT
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL FOR SCHOOL SUBJECTS. 16
Math- So- Lan-
Grade Eng- Sci- Mu- emat- cial guage Shop Home
lish
ence
sic
ics
Sci-
ence
Making
VII-1
23
3
23
82
16
0
32
43
VII-2
15
2
8
30
11
0
32
43
VIII- 1
6
12
9
52
2
0
51
29
VIII-2
17
3
6
17
16
9
57
30
IX-1
11
20
2
9
0
0
32
37
IX-2
4
28
10
0
0
0
11
8
Table XVII indicates the pupils' preferences in
extra-curricula activities. Eighty-one and seven- tenths
TABLE XVII
SHOWING PREFERENCE FOR AND PARTICIPATION IN
EXTRA-CURRICULA ACTIVITIES BY PUPILS OF
THE ROOSEVELT JUMIOR HIGH SCHOOL^'!'
Like Bes-
Take Part
As-
:^upil
Ab-
Gov-
Or-
Grade sem-
Home
:>overn'
sem-
Home
ern-
ches-
bly
Room
liient
ClubF
bly
Room
ment
Clubs
tra
VII-1 157
15t
' 0
0 '
4^
51
^ 12
0"
0 ■
VII-2 139
139
0
0
21
37
18
3
0
VIII-1 100
140
0
0
46
52
26
6
9
VIII-2 96
60
0
0
17
42
30
11
12
IX-1 80
111
11
12
21
87
24
12
8
IX-2 62
50
0
0
30
52
38
14
3
^^Clem,
Orlie
M. and Malloy, Kathie V.
Op.
cit. p
. 49
17
'^'^Clem,
Orlie
M. and Malloy, Kathie V.
Op.
cit. p
.50
c
44
per cent prefer assembly; 84.6 per cent enjoy the home
room meetings. 22.8 per cent have appeared on assembly
programs; 37.5 per cent have taken active part in the
home-room activities; 4.7 per cent have played in the or-
chestra.
Table XVIII shows the number of pupils who work
outside school; the kinds of work they do, and their aver-
age earnings per week. Seventy and three-tenths per cent
do some work at home; 20.6 per cent work outside the home;
24.6 per cent help with the dishes; 11.2 per cent sweep;
27.2 per cent run errands; 9.5 per cent sell papers; 4.6 per
cent work in stores; 11.8 per cent clean walks; 7.9 per cent
care for babies. The earnings of the pupils range from fif-
ty cents to five dollars per week.
TABLE XVIII SHOWING KINDS OF WORK OUTSIDE SCHOOL AND EAPJJ-
INGS PER WEEK OF PUPILS OF ROOSEVELT JUNIOR
HIGH SCH00L18
Kinds of Work
.111-
1
VII-
-2 VIII-
1 VIII-2 IX-1
IX-2
Work at home
97
63
123
113
72
57
For Some one else
22
37
26
17
36
22
Dishes
32
27
32
78
47
33
Sweep
10
16
10
12
22
17
Errands
35
10
36
52
40
38
Papers
12
8
9
17
16
12
Store
3
5
6
10
8
4
Clean Walks
0
10
21
20
14
27
Care of babies
5
7
9
13
12
16
Earnings per Week (
average
) with Number of
Pupils
Be low
$ .50 i .75
#1
.00
$1.25
51.50
$1.75
42 60
45
23
57
12
38
*3
.50
$4.00
$4.50
f5.00
82 60
12
5
13
32
ISciem, Orlie M.
and Malloy,
Kathie H.
Op. cit
. p. 52
r -.
C
45
(f) Differences In Environment and Background
"Environmental differences", states Koos}^ "are
also believed to be potent in making for variation
between individuals of identical native endowment.
Among these environmental influences are the kind of
previous education in school, home conditions, in-
clusive of intellectual traditions, occupations, and
recreational and other interests of members of the
family; and neighborhood surroundings. These are,
in turn, determined in no small part by what are some-
times referred to as "race differences" especially in
cities whose populations are constituted in consider-
able proportions of recent immigration of peoples
whose traditions and attitudes are notably unlike
those of peoples who came to our shores a generation
or more ago. "
Undoubtedly, these environmental factors, espec-
ially racial differences, will vary greatly according to
the location of the school, especially in larger cities
where people are inclined to settle in sections inhabited
largely by people of their own nationality. In most cities,
however, it is probable that pupils are somewhat evenly di-
vided in the junior high school according to racial and
economic background.
In the following tables various differences of en-
vironment and background of the pupils of the Roosevelt Jun-
ior High School as determined by Clem and Malloy are shown.
In Table XIX are shown the occupations of the
parents of these pupils. When these occupations are grouped
Koos, Leonard V. 0pp. Oit. p. 47
I
I
TABLE XIX OCCUPATIONAL STATUS OF PARENTS OF PUPILS OF
ROOSEVELT JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL^O
Occupation
VI I- 1
VI 1-2
VIII-1 VIII-
•2
IX-1
IX-2
Musician
1
5
0
0
0
0
Artist
0
2
0
0
0
0
Dentist
0
0
0
0
0
0
Preacher
2
2
0
2
2
1
Architect
1
0
1
1
0
0
Civil Engineer
0
0
0
2
2
1
Banker
0
0
1
1
1
0
Telegrapher
0
0
0
1
1
0
Auditor
0
0
0
1
1
0
Foreman
6
10
8
1
1
0
Railroad
12
8
5
10
2
2
Fireman
2
3
10
8
0
1
Policeman
1
2
1
1
0
0
Business
10
28
10
9
0
0
Shop
5
20
30
14
0
0
Engineer
5
4
4
0
0
1
Trucking
4
9
8
0
1
0
Picture Show
1
0
0
0
0
0
Pool Parlor
1
0
0
0
0
0
Contractor
13
10
0
10
4
2
Tai lor
3
0
0
0
1
0
Mail Carrier
0
0
0
1
2
2
Insurance
10
8
0
5
2
2
Real Estate
9
5
0
10
10
0
Electrician
3
4
1
0
3
0
Taxi-Driver
3
0
2
4
0
0
Janitor
1
1
1
1
1
0
^ f A__
Pharmacist
2
1
1
0
1
0
Salesman
8
10
8
9
5
5
Barber
9
1
5
4
0
0
Butcher
3
.0 .
2
5
1
0
Mechanic
11
1
12
11
9
4
Carpenter
13
0
20
12
7
8
Mason
3
0
5
5
2
0
Printer
6
0
10
10
4
3
Tinsmi th
2
0
2
5
0
0
Occupation
of Mother
Housekeeper
134
100
121
109
Business
3
11
3
5
2
4
Teacher
1
2
5
7
3
3
Teacher (music)
0
2
5
3
2
2
Artist
0
0
0
1
1
0
N^orse
44
8
6
8
7
6
Beauty Parlor
3
2
2
4
2
2
D'l'essmaker
3
11
9
8
5
8
Store
9
3
3
5
4
8
Real Fptate
0
0
2
1
1
1
20 Clem, Or lie M,,
and Malloy, Kathie
V.
Op
.cit.
pp. 43-45
1.1
47
into clasees designated as professional, business and in-
dustrial occupations, we find 60 men and 37 women engaged
in professional work; 191 men and 33 women engaged in bus-
iness occupations; and 487 men and 198 women occupied in
industry.
Table XX shows the nationality of the parents of
the pupils of the Roosevelt Junior High Schools.
TABLE XX NATIONALITY OF PARENTS OF PlIPILS OF THE ROOSE-
VELT JUNIOR HIGH SCH00LS21
( a) Father
Nationality
VII-1
VI 1-2
VIII-1
VI 1 1-2
lX-1
IX-2
American
144
120
118
133
102
5d
I tali an
5
8
12
6
4
2
Canadian
3
5
6
5
2
2
Polish
2
4
2
4
1
0
Hungarian
1
0
1
0
1
0
Russian
2
2
0
2
0
0
Brazili an
0
0
0
1
1
0
Hollander
0
0
0
0
1
0
(b) Mother
American
144
120
118
133
102
58
Italian
5
8
12
6
4
2
C anadi an
3
5
6
5
2
2
Polish
2
4
2
4
1
0
Hungarian
1
0
1
0
0
0
Russian
2
2
0
2
0
0
Greek
a
0
0
1
1
0
Hollander
0
0
0
0
1
0
The
fathers
of 674
pupils or 86.6 per
cent of
the
total enrollment are
American, 675 or
86.9 per
cent of
the
mothers are American.
According to
pp
Lyman the pupils
of
the I. E. Young Junior High School of New Rochelle, N. Y.
Clem, Or lie M. and Malloy, Kathie V. Op. cit. p. 42
Lyman, R. S. Op. cit. p. 256
1
48
come from widely varying social constituencies, ranging
from families of prosperous New York "business men and pro-
fessional people to families of Italian and negro laborers.
Approximately 20 per cent of the pupils are Italian chil-
dren born in America of immigrant parents. The others are
of native American stock.
These two examples illustrate the fact that the
racial background of the pupils of each school is somewhat
different, but the degree of difference and the particular
nationalities represented are peculiar to the section of
the country and to the location of the school.
Table XXI shows the education of the parents of
the pupils of the Roosevelt J^onior High School. One hundred
TABLE XXI EDUCATION OF PARENTS OF PUPILS OF THE ROOSEVELT
JUNIOR HIGH SCH00L23
Not Sle- Ele- Business"
Grade mentary mentary High College Normal College '
F.
M.
F.
M.
F.
M.
F.
M.
F.
M.
F.
M.
VII-1
8
20
97
104
30
23
5
^
0
8
7
0
VII-2
17
36
54
75
40
20
8
2
0
6
20
0
VIII-1
20
32
53
67
57
46
5
2
0
5
16
0
VI I 1-2
14
11
59
83
63
52
9
6
0
4
11
0
IX-1
18
20
53
69
20
18
12
2
0
2
8
0
IX-2
5
12
10
23
30
20
8
4
0
3
9
0
and thirty-one or 16.8 per cent of the mothers have not finished
the elementary school, and 82 or 10.5 per cent of the fathers
have not. One hundred and seventy-nine or 23 per cent of the
'Clem, Orlie M. and Malloy, Kathie V. Op. cit. P. 43
49
mothers have a high echool education; 240 or 30.9 per cent
of the fathers; 18 or 2.3 per cent of the mo there have been
to college; 47 or 6 per cent of the fathers; 28 or 3.6 per
cent of the mothers are normal graduates; 81 or 10.4 per
cent of the fathers are graduates of business college.
On the whole the fathers have had more education than the
mothers .
In this school, also, 140 or 18 per cent of the
pupils attend the movies; 434 or 55.9 per cent average
once a week. 142 or 18.2 per cent average twice a week.
Three-hundred forty-seven or 44.7 per cent do not attend
other theaters; 259 or 33.3 per cent average once per
month; 145 or 18.6 per cent twice each month; 28 or 3.6
per cent three times each month, two hundred forty-six
or 31.7 per cent do not attend musicals; 376 or 48.4 per
cent average once per terra; 131 or 16.8 per cent twice per
term; 21 or 2.7 per cent three times per term.^^
Five hundred and fifty-one or 71 per cent of the
pupils have a library of some character in their homes.
Four hundred and ninety-eight claim to be fond of reading.
One hundred and seventy-one or 22 per cent procure books
from the public library; 461 or 59.4 per cent use the books
in the school library.
Six hundred and seventy-six or 87.1 per cent of
24 Clem, Orlie M. and Malloy, Kathie V. Op.cit. p. 45
'^^Glem, Orlie M. and Malloy, Kathie V. Op. oit. p. 47
t
50
the pupils do Bome home study. Two hundred and eixty-two
or 33.7 per cent receive help at home; from father 13.7 per
cent; from mother 60.3 per cent; from sister 12.2 per cent;
from brother 6.1 per cent; from aunt 4.1 per cent; from un-
cle 3.4 per cent. Six hundred and ninety- four find con-
ditions at home favorable to study.
A summary of the foregoing data may be expressed
in the following observations. In each grade of the junior
high school a few pupils differ in age by as many as 5 years.
A substantial number of pupils will be found in the groups
differing in age by two years. These differences in age
have been shown by reliable investigators to be accompanied
by corresponding differences in height, weight, and physio-
logical development. There are substantial groups in each
grade differing in height by 6,8, or more inches and propor-
tionately in weight. In the same grade may be found many
pupils who are in advanced stages of adolescence, while oth-
ers will not enter upon that period of development for sev-
eral years.
In mental capacity also there is great variation.
There are a few pupils in each grade in the very dull cate-
gory, and also a few who are classified as near genius.
Considerable numbers of pupils are found in the below aver-
age and above average groups.
Clem, Orlie M. and Malloy, Kathie V. Op. cit. p. 49
51
In achievement the pupils in the lowest group in
each grade are exceeded hy those in the highest groups by
amounts varying from 3 to 8 semesters of progress, depend-
ing upon the grade and the subject. The differences are
greater in the ninth than in the seventh and eighth grades.
Pupils also show a wide variety of tastes, interests, and
aptitudes. These vary from a liking for certism school
subjects, to individual preferences for various extra-cur-
ricula activities. Many pupils plan to enter senior high
school; fewer plan to enter vocational and business schools.
A wide variation in the environment and background
of pupils is found. The majority of pupils come from fam-
ilies whose parents are engaged in commercial, industrial,
or common occupations. The pupils in the majority of cases
manifest a tendency to seek an education fitting them for an
economic and social position superior to that of their pa-
rents. Many pupils work outside the school in a variety of
occupations; most of these are jobs requiring a relatively
small portion of their time. Many pupils also receive help
on their lessons at home, and most of them have a home envi-
ronment reasonably conducive to their educational develop-
ment.
Boa^.on University
school of Educatiou
Library.
1
81
obeervationB to the effect that he terogeneoue clasees showed
some undesirable situations. Bright pupils laughed at dull
ones. Dull pupils seldom participated, and when doing so
showed lack of assurance.
28
An investigation was conducted by Turney and Hyde
in an attempt to find out from junior high school pupils
their attitudes toward ability grouping as it was practiced
in the school they attended in Lawrence, Kansas. The study
involved 645 pupils in grades VII-A, VIII-A, VIII-B, IX-A,
and IX-B in the junior high school, who were divided into
three or four sections for each grade on the basis of
intelligence quotients from the Stanford-Bine t individual
exsjninations supplemented by elementary school marks, by
the judgment of the elementary school teachers, and by one
or more achievement tests.
To these 645 pupils, the following questions were
submitted:
"1, Have your parents ever urged you to try
to be placed in another group?
2. Has your teacher ever urged you to work
harder in order that you could be placed in
a higher group?
3. Has your teacher ever urged you to do
better work because you are not doing as well
as you could?
4. Has your teacher ever suggested that you
were working too hard?
28. Turney, Austin H. and Hyde, M. F. The Attitude of
Junior High School Pupils Toward Ability Grouping.
School Review 39:597-607. Oct. '31.
52
CHAPTER IV
ABILITY GROUPING IN T^ JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
The wide range of differences that have been
shown in the previous chapter to exist in the junior high
school is convincing evidence of the necessity of providing
for them. To do this an enlarged list of courses, and a
varied program of activities must be furnished by the school.
Technical and practical arts courses, clubs, such as musi-
cal or art clubs, athletic and physical education programs
are all necessary if the school is properly to perform this
function. The problem, however, that has furnished the
most difficulty to junior high school administrators is con-
cerned with the best means to be used in recognizing differ-
ences in learning capacity or mental ability. Many plans
and techniques have been proposed and many are being em-
1
ployed as the best means of solving this problem. Billet
lists 28 different provisions in use in secondary schools of
the United States for recognizing individual differences in
1932. From this long list, the following may be mentioned
as being most frequently used or more adequate for this pur-
Billet, Roy 0. Op. cit. D.9
53
poee : (1) Variation in number of subjects a pupil may car-
ry. (2) Special coaching of slow pupils. (3) Problem method.
(4) Differentiated assignments. (5) Homogeneous or ability
grouping. (6) Special classes for pupils who have failed.
(7) Long unit assignments. (8) Contract plans. (9) VocS/-
tional guidance through exploratory courses. (10) Educa-
tional guidance through exploratory courses. (11) Morrison
plan. (12) Dalton Plan. (13) Individualized instruction.
(14) Winnetka technique.
The same writer has reduced the list of 28 pro-
visions mentioned above to seven categoriesf namely, (1) homo-
geneous grouping, (2) special classes (3) plans characterized
by the unit assignment, (4) scientific study of problem cases
(5) variation in pupil load, (5) variation in pupil load,
(6) out of school projects and studies, (7) advisory or guid-
ance programs.
"Of the seven", states Billet, the first three-
homogeneous grouping, special classes, and the unit
assignment — have been found to be core elements in a
typically successful program to provide for individ-
ual differences. These three form a kind of trin-
ity, a sort of three-in-one answer to the Nation's
outstanding schools to the problem of providing for
individual differences. There is no evidence that,
intrinsically, these three plans are alternative
rather than complementary procedures." 2
Koos lists the following among provisions for indiv-
idual differences in the junior high school, as the more im-
*^Billet, Roy 0. Op. cit. p. 11
3
Koos, Leonard 0. Op. cit. p. 329
54
portant: (1) modification of admission requirements to
the seventh grade, (2) special plans and rates of promo-
tion, (3) directed or supervised study, (4) contract or
"unitary" plans which permit the pupil to move forward
at a rate best suited of ability , (5) Winnetka and Dal-
ton Plans, (6) remedial classes and similar provisions,
and (7) ability grouping.
4
Ability grouping, as Koos further states, is
an especially advantageous feature of junior high schools
since it is highly important for seven of its functions
and important for two others.
Turning to the specific functions, elimination
5
will be reduced, continues this writer, since those pu-
pils who were discouraged by competition with more capa-
ble pupils and continuous failure will be more content in
groups suited to their ability and will be retained in
school. Economy of time will be encouraged by the ad-
vancement of pupils more nearly in accordance with their
respective abilities to progress. Exploration and guid-
ance is encouraged through making it possible to focus at-
tention on the abilities and characteristics of pupils in
each group, and thereby the better to ascertain their needs
present and future.
*Koos, Leonard V. Op. cit. p. 54
5 Koos, Leonard V. Op. cit. p. 334
55
Because the low groups contain the largest num-
ber of average pupils, and, hence, of pupils farthest
along in physiological development, a greater recognition
of adolescent nature will be secured. Because homogen-
eous grouping stimulates brighter pupils to better per-
formances and encourages slower pupils, the basis for bet-
ter scholarship is laid. The narrower range of abilities
represented in homogeneous groups makes it much more near-
ly possible to adopt methods and content to less-than-aver-
age, average, and superior pupils, aind thus provides the
conditions for better teaching. Homogeneous grouping
should make for a wholesome disciplinary situation, since
the brighter pupils will te more completely engrossed by
competition only with their peers, while slower pupils,
being sectioned with other pupils like themselves, will be
removed from a situation which is provocative of the un-
toward behavior which is their only means of securing self-
realization in heterogeneous groups.
The primary purpose for which homogeneous or abil-
ity grouping was introduced into the Junior high was, of
course, the recognition of individual differences. Indeed,
6
Briggs shows that 27.9 per cent of a number of judges whom
he consulted approved of homogeneous grouping as an essen-
tial feature of the junior high school and 69.2 per cent
Briggs, Thomas H. Op. cit. p. 55
56
approved of it as desirable for this purpose. Neverthe-
less, homogeneous grouping has not been without its op-
7
ponents. Burr, particularly, made a study purporting to
show the large amo^jnt of "overlapping" in homogeneous
groups and hence the fallacy of the procedure. With re-
gard to this study, Douglass says:
"The conclusion which should be made from
this study of Burr is not different from that ar-
rived at by many students of the phenomenon of
overlapping in "homogeneous groups", namely, that
while completely homogeneous groups are not things
of possible realization, groups may be constructed
of materially less heterogeneity . than the typical
heterogeneous class section** 8
Other objections to homogeneous grouping are that it is
undemocratic, that it places a stigma upon the slower
pupils, that it has not been shown that pupils profit more
when taught in homogeneous rather than heterogeneous groups,
that it is Impossible to differentiate the work for differ-
ent groups, and that administrative difficulties are great-
ly increased.
Because of the nature of these objections it is
9
difficult to dispose of them. Turney states after a re-
view of the literature that "the experimental literature
indicates that more often than not pupils do better in
homogeneous groups than in . heterogenous groups."
Burr, Marvin Y. A Study of Homogeneous Grouping,
Contributions to Education. No. 457. New York, Teachers
College. Columbia University. 1931
8
Douglass, Harl A. Op.cit. p. 349
9
Turney, Austin H. "The Status of Ability Grouping" Ed.
Administration and Supervision 17:21-42 110-127. Jan-Feb. '3
ii
57
10
Freeman argues that the objections to grouping
based on the grounds that it is undemocratic and places a
stigma on the pupils are unjustified. The objections
that grouping pupils according to ability creates adminis-
trative difficulties raises the question whether any plan
seeking to provide for individual differences will not cre-
ate the same or even greater difficulties.
Regardless of objections raised against it, homo-
geneous grouping is the most widely used method of provi-
ding for individual differences in the junior high school.
From a total of 614 junior high schools to which Billet
sent inquiries, 496 or almost 80 per cent reported the use
of this plan. A consideration of such wide-spread use of
ability grouping justifies further study of it in connec-
tion with the junior high school. In the remainder of
this chapter, therefore, we shall consider this plan from
the standpoint of (a) bases of grouping, (b) Mode of pro-
cedure in grouping, (o) attitudes toward grouping, and (d)
practices in connection with grouping.
. Bases of Grouping
Dvorak found in 1922 that of 86 junior high
schools to which he had sent inquiries less than half were
^^Freeman, Frank N. "Sorting the Students" Ed. Review.
Nov. 1924. 68:169
11
Dvorak, August H. "Recognition of Individual Differ-
ences in the Junior High School." School Review 30:679-685,
p. 180 Nov. 1922
c
1
58
using "scientific" methods. The question may well be
asked, "What are scientific methods?" In this connec-
tion the term is generally taken to mean the sectioning
of pupils according to methods and upon bases that have
proved most accurate in placing pupils in groups most
nearly suited to their ability. It has not yet been de-
cided which methods and which bases or combination of
bases ie best for this purpose. However, several exper-
iments have been undertaken in an attempt to answer this
question. One of the more important of these was the
12
study of Brooks, who investigated the comparative value
of several bases for sectioning pupils according to abil-
ity in grade VII of a Baltimore junior high school, To
a class of 93 pupils beginning the work of the junior
high school, nine group intelligence tests and five achieve-
ment tests were given. The group intelligence tests in
the order in which they were given were: Miller, Form A;
Otis Self- Administering; Illinois, Form A; Terman Group
Test, Form A; Haggerty Delta 2; National Intelligence Test,
A; Dearborn Revised C and D; and the Pintner Non-Language
Test. The achievement tests, also in the order in which
they were given are; Thorndike McCall Reading, Form 3; Kel-
ley, Trabue Language, Completion Alpha; Holley Sentence
Vocabulary, a group vocabulary test consisting of the first
Brooks, Fowler D. "Sectioning Junior High School Pupils
by Tests and School Marks." Journal of Ed. Research.
12:359-69 Dec. 1925
59
list of words from the Stanford-Bine t Test, two parts, 7
minutes to each part; and Woody-McCall Mixed Fundamentals
in Arithmetic, Form A.
The elementary school marks for the fifth and
sixth grades and the chronological ages were taken from the
pupils 'permanent record card. The marks were upon a five-
fold basis, E. G. M. P. and D. , a mark for each half year.
They were given the following numerical values: E, 5; G, 4;
M,3; P, 2; D, 1. The ninety-three pupils were in two sec-
tions during the first half-year in junior high school.
They were scattered throughout four sections during the sec-
ond half-year, grouped upon the basis of previous school marks,
and chronological age, in so far as administrative exigencies
permitted.
To determine the scholastic success of the pupils
Brooks combined (1) the average seventh grade marks in English,
mathematics, history, and geography given to pupils in fairly
homogeneous groups by teachers using the same standards in mark
ing different sections; (2) the educational ages from the
Stanford Achievement Tests. The average marks, were weighted
2, and the educational ages 1, on the ground that there are
important features of the first year course of study in these
four subjects that are not included in the Stanford Achieve-
ment Tests.
For the purposes of the study, the pupils were
i
60
divided into three sections upon the b asis of the criterion
of scholarship in the seventh grade, and this was used as the
basis of correct sectioning. The pupils next divided into
three sections upon each of the fourteen group tests, sixth-
grade marks, and the average of fifth and sixth grade marks.
The percentage of pupils who were correctly sectioned by-
each of these fa.ctor8 was used as a criterion of the validity
of that factor for dividing pupils into ability groups.
Sixth grade marks were fO'ond by Brooks to be the
most accurate single factor in sectioning pupils; 63.4 per
cent having been sectioned correctly by them while only
2,2 per cent were displaced two sections. Stanford-Binet
intelligence quotients placed 64.5 percent of the pupils
in the proper sections but 5.4 per cent were displaced two
sections. All other single factors showed a somewhat lower
percentage of correct sectioning.
Achievement tests generally showed a lower
percentage of accuracy than intelligence tests. The mean
of group intelligence tests placed 55.3 per cent of the
pupils accurately with 5.8 per cent displaced two sections;
while the mean of the achievement tests placed 47.1 per cent
accurately, with 12.0 per cent displaced two sections.
By combining the average of the sixth-grade marks
with intelligence Quotients from the Haggerty Delta 2
Intelligence Test, the highest percentage of correct section-
ing, 73.1 per cent, was obtained while only 1.1 percent were
f
•
61
dieplaced two sections.
Brooks concludes from these results that relatively
correct sectioning is secured if pupils entering the junior
high school are divided upon the basis of sixth-grade marks,
that less accurate sectioning is secured from the use of one
or more group intelligence tests, but that more accurate
sectioning than that given by either of the above bases is
secured by combining sixth-grade marks with intelligence
quotients from a group intelligence test as a basis of
sectioning.
A somewhat similar experiment was conducted by
13
Kefauver with 110 pupils entering junior high school in
Fresno, California during the school year 1925-6. A number
of factors were used for forming groups and each was
evaluated by its relationship with the success of the
pupils during the first semester of the junior high school.
The different bases considered were: (1) average of school
marks obtained in grades five and six; (2) teachers*
estimate of caoacity; (3) teachers' estimate of application;
(4) Multi-mental test score; (5) intelligence quotients
obtained from score on the Multi-mental test; (e) Thorndike-
McCall Rpading Tpst T score; (7) Woody-McCall Arithmetic
Test score; and (8) Monroe Reasoning Arithmetic Test Score.
13, Kefauver, Grayson N. Validity of Bases for Forming
Ability Groups.
Teachers College Record 31:99-144. Nov. 1929
62
The 110 pupils included in the investigation were
ta^oght in ability groups formed on a combination of the
eight measures listed above with a weighting of 2 given to
mental age and the average of school marks and one to each
of the others.
The success of the pupils in the three subjects
under consideration, English, mathematics, and social science,
was determined by (1) objective tests and (2) a rsinking of
success by the teachers. The objective tests, nine in all,
were constructed oy the teachers under Kefauver'e direction
since the content of each course was modified for each
group with the result that none of the standard achievement
tests was found suitable for all sections. In ranking each
pupil, a rating of 1 was given to the most successful
pupils in epch group and a ranking of 10 to the least
successful. The ranking was based on a number of tests,
many of wnich were objective, and on observation in the class
room. For this reason the ranking by the teachers was given
a weighting of 2, and the results of the objective tests a
weighting of 1.
In determining the coefficient of correlation,
between the varioios factors and the measure of success of
the pupils in the different subjects, Kefauver first secured
the mean of the correlations for each ability group. Because
it is not customary to secure correlations for fractions of
4
63
14
a group, the formula of Kelley was used for the purpose
of converting the mean group correlations into correlations
that would have been obtained if the variability of the
measures had been equal to that for the entire class group.
A third correlation, rj, was obtained by taking
the average of the original correlation and that obtained
by the use of the standard deviation of the factors, that
is, an average of the first correlation and the second.
This correlation according to Kefauver, represents the most
accurate relationship and was used as a basis for the
comparison of the factors.
The single factor that showed the highest
correlation with the measure of scholastic success was the
teachers' estimate of capacity, which showed a correlation
of .50 with the general scholastic success of the pupils,
.49 with the pupils' success in English, .50 with pupils'
success in mathematics, and .51 with pupils' success in
social science.
Multi-mental intellie-ence quotients, mean of
teachers' marks. Multi-mental Test scores, Thorndike-McCall
Reading Test T score, and teachers' estimate of application
ranked next in that order to the teachers' estimate of
capacity, in degree of correlation with pupils' general
success. Mean of teachers' marks gave a correlation of .42
with general success.
14. Kelley, Trcman L. Statistical Method. The MacMillan Co.
1923. p. 2?;l-223. Formula 178.
4
64
TJae relationship of various combinations of
factors with the measure of success in the different subjects
was also determined by Kefauver. The combination of multi-
mental intelligence quotient and teachers* estimate of
capacity showed the highest correlation, .61, with pupils'
general success, followed closely by the combination of
teachers' estimate of cap6.city and Multi-mental test score
which gave a correlation of .60 with general success. For
English, the former combination gave the highest correlation,
^64, while the latter gave tne highest correlations with
mathematics and social science, .61 and .62 respectively.
The lowest correlation, .44, was found for the combination
of Multi-mental test score and McCall Reading Test Score.
Kefauver concludes from his study that whatever
combination of factors is used, it ought to include either
the elementary school teachers' estimate of the pupils*
capacity or the mean of the teachers' marks, (2) the pupils'
intelligence quotient or score on a mental test, and (3) a
general achievement test or a composite of the scorfB of a
number of special achievement teets.
15
In September, 1924, Keener supervised the classi-
15. Keener, E. E. Results of Homogeneous Classification of
Junior High School Pupils. Journal of Educational
Research 14:14-20. June, 1926.
fication of pupils into ability groups in the junior high
schools of Chicago. About 5,000 pupils were classified into
sections in grades VII and VIII according to scores on the
Otis Classification Test. The achievement of the pupils was
measured in Jan'oary and again in May by means of the Stanford
Achievement Test. The correlation between the scores on the
Otie test and the achievement test scores was found to be
0»83 for the eighth grade in one school and according to the
author practically the same correlation was found for the
seventh grades in all schools.
16
Marzolf obtained the correlation between various
measures of ability and the average of the seventh grade
marks for 165 seventh grade pupils, most of whom previous
to beginning junior high school had been enrolled in the
same school system. The measures of ability were (1) the
educational quotients determined by use of the Public School
Publishing Co. Test, (2) the intelligence quotients obtained
from the use of the Terman Group Test of Mental Ability,
and (3) the yearly averages of the fifth and sixth grade
fi^rks of the pupils then enrolled in the seventh grade.
The average of the fifth and sixth grade marks
gave a higher correlation, .768 with seventh grade marks,
16. Marzolf, Stanley S. The Classification of High School
Students. School and Society 32:881-62. December, 1930.
4
66
than any other single factor. Educational auotiente gave
a correlation of .658. The combination of sixth grade
marks and intelligence quotients gave the highest correla-
tion of all, .83. Sixth grade marks and educational
quotients gave a correlation of .793. Averages of fifth
and sixth grade marks and intelligence quotients a
correlation of .bl, average of fifth and sixth grade marks
and educational quotients a correlation of .795, and the
combination of educational quotients and intelligence
quotients a correlation of .72 with seventh grade marks.
A comparison of the results of these studies
must of course take into consideration the fact that the
criterion of pupils success was different in each case.
The seventh grade marks of the teachers, however, were an
important factor in determining the criterion of success in
each of the three studies.
In Brooks' study they were given a weighting of
2 asagaiofit 1 for achievement test scores in determining
the measure of success, while in Marzolf 's experiment they
constituted the sole criterion of success in the seventh
grade. It is significant that the results in both cases
showed the greatest reliability to be found in the combina-
tion of sixth grade marks and intelligence quotients from a
group intelligence test.
In Kefa.uver's study, the criterion of success
C
',1
6T
TABLE XXII COMPARISON OF PANITING OF VARIOUS BASES IN
CORRECTLY CLASSIFYING PUPILS ACCOPDING TO
ABILITY IN THE STLTDIES OF (1) BROOKS,
(2) KEFAUVER, AND (S) ICARZOLF.
Bases
(1' a
Bropks
(2) b
Kef auver*
c
Marzolf ■
Intelligence Quotients
(Otis Group Test)
Intelligence Quotients
( Stanf ord-Einet)
2
Intelligence Quotients
(Multi-mental test)
.1
2^
Teachers' estimate of
application
1
-
Averages of fifth-sixth
grade marks
3
1
Sixth grade marks
1
Wean of achievement tests
14
Educational quotients
2
Thorndike-McCall Reading
Test Scores
13
5
Intelligence Quotients
(Terman Group Test)
3
3*
a. Criterion of correct classification, percentage of pupils'
displaced from a three-fold grouping on the basis of seventh
grade marks and achievement test.
b. Criterion of correct classification, the correlation of bases
with achievement tests scores and a ranking of pupils by teach-
ers in a three-fold grouping.
c. Criterion of correct classification, correlation of bases ^
with seventh grade marks.
d. 19 single bases used in this study.
e. 9 single bases used in this study.
f. Only e single bases used in this study.
consisted of a ranking by the teachers, — determined largely
by school tests— which were given a weighting of 2 as against
68
1 for the Bcoree of certain achievement tests. It is prob-
able that the criterion of success in this case was not
greatly different from either of the other two.
TABLE XXIII COMPARISON OF RANKING OF VARIOUS COMBINATIONS
OF BASES IN CORRECTLY CLASSIFYING PUPILS AC^
CORDING TO ABILITY IN THE STUDIES OF
(1) BPOOKS (2) KEFAITVER AND (?) MARZOLF
nr; m— — m-^
COMBINATION OF BASES Brooks^ Kefauver^ Marzolf
Teachers' estimate of capa-
city and intelligence quotients
Averages of fifth-sixth grade
marks and intelligence quotients
Sixth grade marks and intelli-
gence quotients
5
Averages of fifth-sixth grade
m.arks and educational quotients
Average of fifth-sixth grade
marks and Thorndike-McCall
Reading Test Scores
Intelligence quotients and
Educational quotients
Intelligence quotients and 6
Thorndike-McCall Reading Test
Scores
a. Criterion of correct classification percentage of pupils dis-
placed from a three-fold sectioning on basis of achievement test
scores and seventh grade marks.
b. Criterion of correct classification, correlation of combina-
tion of bases with achievement test scores and ranking by teach-
ers in a three-fold grouping.
c. Criterion of correct classification, correlation of combina-
tion of bases with seventh grade marks.
d. Only 1 combination used in this study. This combination out-
ranked all other bases taken singly or in combination.
e. Ten combinations of bases used in this study.
f . Five combinations of bases used in this study.
c
69
Kefauver found that the highest correlation existed between
a comlDination of elementary school teachers' estimate of
capacity and intelligence quotients and the measure of suc-
cess named above. Of the combinations which did not in-
clude the teachers' estimate of capacity, the highest cor-
relation was found for the mean of teachers' marks and Mul-
ti-mental intelligence quotients.
17
In 1922, Breed and Breslich conducted an exper-
iment in grouping pupils according to ability in the seventh
and ninth grades of the junior high school of the University
of Chicago. The tests selected for use in the investigation
were the Chicsigo Group Intelligence Test, Form A, and the Ter-
man Group Test of Mental Ability, Form A. These tests were
administered to a group of 54 seventh grade pupils and a
group of 60 ninth grade pupils. In order to determine, —
among other things, — the extent to which the tests agreed in
the measure of intelligence, the authors obtained the coeffi-
cients of correlation between the tests.
The Chicago-Terman tests showed an intertest correl-
ation of .69 in the seventh grade and .77 in the ninth grade.
The Chicago-Otis tests showed a correlation of .77 in the sev-
enth grade and .78 in the ninth grade. The Otis-Terman tests
showed correlations of .74 and .85 in the seventh and ninth
grades respectively.
Breed, F. S. and Breslich, E. R. "Intelligence Tests
and the Classification of Pupils" School Review 30:51-66.
200-226 Jan. 1922, March 1922.
€
C
70
A series of composite intelligence scores was
derived from the three intelligence tests to obtain a ser-
ies which might represent more nearly the true value than
any single series of scores.
A study of the disparity between individual
scores for the same pupils in two different tests was made.
It was found to be six points when measured on the Chicago
scale, 11.1 points when measured on the Otis Scale and 13.9
when measured on the Terman Scale. This degree of varia-
bility led the investigators to conclude that caution should
be exercised in the use of group intelligence tests for pur-
poses of classifying pupils; that at least two good group
tests should be employed and the composite score used; and
that additional testing may be necessary where test scores
show marked disagreement.
18
A somewhat similar conclusion was reached by Olass
in 1920. In February of that year, the Otis Group Intelli-
gence Tests were administered to pupils entering the Washing-
ton Junior High School of Rochester, New York. In the middle
of the term the Chicago Group Intelligence Tests were given to
the same pupils for the purpose of checking the results of one
group test with another. For the sake of comparing the rel-
ative classification of individuals among the eight classes,
the whole group was divided into quartiles. Two- thirds of
Glass, James If. "Classification of Pupils in Ability
Groups" School Review 28:495-508 Sept. 1920
the memberehip of each quartile as determined by the Otis Teste
remained constant in the Chicago tests, while one-third was dis-
tributed among the other quartiles.
Glass concluded from this result that group intelli-
gence tests furnish only a rough measure of intelligence and
that only composite results are reliable.
From these two studies and from the experience of
others with a broad background in the administration and in-
terpretation of mental tests, the conclusion suggested is that
if group mental tests are used in sectioning pupils at least
three good tests should be employed.
The various studies examined above furnish strong ev-
idence, therefore, that the bases of sectioning pupils upon en-
trance to the junior high school should include (1) either the
elementary school teachers' estimate of capacity or the ele-
mentary school teachers' marks, or the sixth grade marks, and
(2) the intelligence quotients from an individual examination
or from a composite score from three or more group intelligence
tests, or the composite scores from three or more group, intel-
ligence tests.
* • Mode of Procedure in Ability Grouping
In the preceding chapters, the writer arrived at cer-
tain conclusions witn regard to the bases most suitable for
classifying pupils according to ability. Many authorities
feel, however, that other factors besides ability must be
r
1
72
taken into consideration if the pupils are to be placed in
the groups most suited to their needs and capacities.
Physiological development, general health, social maturity,
and chronological age are some of these factors This is
particularly true in junior high schools where the number
of pupils in each intelligence group is so large that pu-
pils in widely divergent stages of physical and social de-
veloument may be found in each group.
19
Freeman, for example, speaks of horizontal and
vertical grouping. The vertical grouping would be purely
on the basis of academic ability as determined by tests,
school marks, and teachers' judgments. Horizontal group-
ing would be on the basis of the stage which the pupil has
reached of physiological and social development. Accord-
20
ing to the author:
"There is satisfactory evidence that children go
through certain developmental stages and that these
stages determine to a large extent the groups into
which they should be placed. "
These two methods of grouping are intended to be complemen-
tary. The pupils may be grouped according to one basis,
e.g. horizontally, and then if the- number of pupils is suf-
ficiently large grouping within each division on the other
basis may be carried out.
A plan which takes cognizance of all these factors
21
is that advocated by Ryan and Crecilius. According to this
_ _
Freecan, Frank N. "Bases on which Students Can Be Clas-
sified Effectively" School Review 29:734-45 Dec 1921
20Freeman, Frank N. Op. cit. p. 739
^^Ryan, Heber H. and Crecilius, P. Ability Grouping in
the Junior High School
f
73
plan, grouping of pupils in the junior high school ie based
on several criteria, namely; mental age and intelligence quo-
tients, chronological age, anatomical age, social maturity,
pedagogical age, school success, and physical tone.
In forming groups, the following procedure is ob-
served: A cnart is made for each pupil. Upon this chart
is placed, first, the intelligence quotient, and the name of
the test from which it was determined. The chronological
age given in years smd months at the date on which the men-
tal test is next placed on the chart in the space indicated.
The dentition age is next determined from a chart provided
for the purpose. The heights and weights are then taken
and are expressed in terms of age by consulting a table of
age norms for height and weight such as those published by
22 - 23
Baldwin and Wood, and Clark, Sydenstrucker , and Wood.
The social age of the pupil is then entered. This
is a subjective estimate furnished by the teachers of the
elementary school and should be the result of a consensus
of the opinions of the teachers who have come into contact
with the pupil rather than the opinion of one teacher. The
ratings in Arithmetic fundamentals, reading rate, and read-
ing comprehension are determined by the use of standard tests
such as the Woody-McCall Test in Mixed F'ondamentals and the
_
Baldwin, Bird T. and Wood, Thomas. A Class-room Weight
Record. Published by U. S. Health Service.
23
Clark, Sydenstrucker, and Collins. Heights and Weights
of School Children. Published by U. S. Health Service
r
74
Monroe Test for Silent Reading. Theee are entered on the
chart in age-norms as well as according to score made.
School success, as determined by rank in class is next en-
tered. This is expressed as a fraction, the numerator ex-
pressing the pupils' rank and the denominator the number
of pupils in the class, since the rank in class has little
significance unless the number of pupils in the class is
given.
Finally, the general health of the pupil as re-
ported by the school physician who may report the pupil's
health as E. (Excellent) , G. (Good), F. (Fair), and P. (Poor).
The nsune of the school is also entered on the card.
When all these ratings have been determined, trans-
lated into age-norms and entered upon the chart, a graph is
drawn which represents the profile of the individual whose ra-
tings are noted thereon.
In organizing pupils into groups the following pro-
cedure is used: First, the number of charts is arranged ac-
cording to intelligence quotients from the highest to the low-
est From the number which represents the total number of pu-
pils in tne grade for which grouping is taking place, and
which usually is the seventh, the number of groups to be formed
is decided upon. For example, in an incoming class of 250 pu-
pils perhaps 8 or 9 groups will be formed. With this in mind,
all of the charts of I.Q. above 115 are taken and separated
from the others. From this number are removed all those which
ehow a dangerously low mark in any item listed on the chart.
The reason for this is that experience has shown that any
pupil who is below the level of the group in any particular
will have difficulty keeping up with the work of the group.
For example, a pupil of high I. Q. , hut of low achievement
in school work will have difficulty in doing the work of
the group. Likewise a pupil of low physical tone will
perhaps lack the physical strength to progress with the
accelerated group.
When all these exceptions have been removed, the
remaining group constitutes the "A" Group. The remaining
pupils of high I. Q. will constitute the "B" group.
The next group formed will be the lowest group
or "C" group. Here the lowest I. Q's are selected and
from this lowest number are chosen those of low achievement
who are older chronologically and are in early or later
adolescence. These pupils are segregated according to sex
in groups somewhat smaller than the other groups and they
are classified as the segregated "C" groups to distinguish
them from the mixed "C" groups.
The mixed "C" groups are those whose I. Q's are
below average or close to the border line, but who are
otherwise of normal development and of average age and
achievement. These pupils are not segregated as the factors
which argue for such a practice in the other "C groups are
76
not present here.
The remaining pupils are organized into "B" groups.
The "B" groups are of two kinds, first; those of average or
somewhat above average I. Q. but below the level of the
"A" group, and second; those of high I. Q. , who have been
excluded from the "A" group. The former are normal in all
respects though not of as high rating as the "A" group
while the latter are a group oi high mental level who are
backward in some respect. Either they are less mature than
the other pupils or they have neglected their previous
school work or are below average in some respect. This
group is called the "top B" group. Quite often they are as
capable as the "A" group, and in many cases pupils should
be transferred to that group after they have demonstrated
capacity to do the accelerated work.
Thus there are five types; the A's, top B, Average
B's, Mixed C's, and Separated C's. None of these groups,
however, should be considered as fixed and unchanging, but
promotions should be made from one group to the other as
the pupils work shows his capacity to work with a stronger
group. Likewise, if a pupil's work should indicate that
his qualifications have been overestimated or that he is
unwilling to do the work of the higher group he should be
transferred without delay. Flexibility should be the guid-
ing principle of group organization.
f
7 7
c. ATTITUDES TOWARD ABILITY GROUPirj
Among the dis advantages which those opposed to
n-rc sttnrhpd to its use , the follow-
ability grouping claim are axxacnea uu x = ,
ing have been listed hy Turney:
"1 A stiffma is attached to low sections operating
* to discourage the pupils in those sections.
2. Teachers are unable or do not have time to
differentiate the work for different ability
levels.
Teachers obi ect to the slower groups.
4*. Parents complain when their children are
placed in slower groups. ^ J.^**«„T^
5. Program construction is renderea more difficult.
6. Freauent transfers necessitate more efficient
office help*.
The above list does not of course include all the
disadvantages supt)Osed to arise from the use of homogeneous
grouping. It does, however, contain some of the strongest
objections to the use of this plan. It is undemocratic,
say its opponents; it stigmatizes dull pupils; it renders
program construction more difficult; and it creates dis-
satisfaction among the members of the teaching staff
especially among those who must teach the slow groups.
Because of the subjective nature of the effects
which are according to the opponents of ability grouping,
thus created, it is difficult to establish the validity
or non- validity of the charges.
24. Turney, Austin H. Op. Cit. p. 23
78
25
A study by Clem and Wroath, attempted to throw
light on these points. In an effort to determine, among
other things, the subjective reactions of junior high school
administrators to homogeneous grouping, a questionnaire
was sent the principals of eighty junior high schools in
cities of 100,000 papulation or over in the United States.
The questions concerned with these subjective attitudes
dealth with the following items; attitudes of pupils;
quality of work, cooperation of pupils; development of
citizenship of pupils; cooperation of teachers; efficiency
of teachers; attitude of parents toward the ability grouping
system; and a few others.
Tabulation of the replies of 71 principals showed
that 55 reported better attitudes among pupils and 1
reported undesirable attitudes; 55 reported a better quality
of work; 51 reported a greater cooperation of pupils and
none reported less cooperation; 33 reported greater develop-
ment of citizenship qualities of pupils; 40 reported
cooperation of teachers, and none reported lack of teacher
cooperation; 40 reported greater efficiency of teachers,
while 5 reported lack of teacher adjustment; 37 reported
25. Clem, Orlie M. and Wroath, Lydia F. Practices in
Homogeneous Grouping in Junior High Scbools. Educational
Method 2:6-11. Jan. '34.
0
79
general satisfaction of parents with the ability grouping
system, while one reported dissatisfaction of parents.
The results of this tabulation do not, of course,
furnish conclusive evidence wl^th regard to the truth of
the objections enumerated above. The subjective reactions
of school principals, for example, cannot be accepted as
deciding whether the quality of the pupils' work has
increased or decreased. They shouldhowever furnish a
va^-uable means of estimating the extent of cooperation,
efficiency, and adjustment to groups of teachers of homo-
geneous groups who are under the supervision of these
principals .
Many educators feel that a greater degree of
skill, and a greater ability to adapt materials and methods
is required to teach slow groups than bright groups. It
seems equally obvious that adaptation of materials and
teaching procedures may more easily be accomplished in
26
groups whose range of ability is narrow. Billet states:
"Part of the unanalyzed art of teaching ha.s
consisted always in the teachers' capacity to
sense the needs of the learner and to provide
for them. Hence wnen good teachers receive a
homdgeneous group they are auick to recognize
that certain teaching techniques are in order."
26. Billet, Roy 0. Op. cit. p. 142
I
80
Undoubtedly, many teachers would prefer to teach
bright groups. Many teachers, also, are not as capable of
teaching slow groups as others. 1^ the replies made to
Clem and Wroath, 40 schools report the cooperation of
teachers and none report lack of cooperation; 40 schools
report greater efficiency of teachers and 5 report lack of
adjustment. Evidence is not lacking, therefore, to show
that the majority of teachers are able and willing to make
whatever adjustments are necessary for teaching classes of
varying ability.
The fact that parents were reported generally
satisfied with the ability grouping system by 37 schools
while only 1 school reports dissatisfaction is some
evidence, though not conclusive, of a favorable attitude
toward the use of this plan.
One of the strongest objections that have been
made against homogeneous grouping is that a stigma is
attached to low sections operating to discourage the pupils
in these sections. It is a matter of debate, however,
whether the pupil who is failing in a heterogeneous group
is not equally or even to a greater degree subject to dis-
couragement and the ridicule of pupils of superior ability.
27
Billet, in one of his studies, reported subjective
27. Billet, Roy 0. Differentiation of Freshman English for
Groups of Different Attitudes. Educational Research
Bulletin of Ohio State IMiversity. 5:185-190. April
1926. Summarized by Tiarney, A.H. Op. Git. p. 28.
81
olservaticus to the efffct tL:.t he tf rogeneous clacsee showed
come undesirable situations. Erig-^t pipils la'at,hed £i.t ciall
cnec. Dull pupilr seldcx participated, and when doiat to
chowed iMck of s,Er>'ar-.n.ce.
28
An iiivc£tig€.ticn ?::.e conducted ly Tarney cad Hyde
in an attempt tc find out fron j'unlor hi£.:h school pupile
their attitudes toward ability grouping: s^p. it n':e practiced
in the school they atleaded in Lawrence, Xanses. The study
involved C46 pupils in grades VII-A, VIII-A, VIII-B, IX-A,
and IX-E in the junior high echool, -jeIo i?ere dividfd into
three or fcur eecticns for each grf:.de on the bacie cf
intelligence Ciuotitnts from the Stanf ord-Blne t individual
ex^^-minatione supplemented by eleicentary nchool laarkL-, by
the ^ udgn-ent of the eleaentfiry echool teachere, and by one
or more echievenient tcete.
To theee i4Z pupils, the rcllo«i:ii.' qucstionB were
eubciitted;
"1. Fave yo JT pai ento evci 'arged yea to try
to be placed in another group?
r. Etc y:.ar teacl-er ever -rgei y:. j. to v'/ork
harder in order that you could be placed in
a higher group?
3. Has your teacher ever urged you to do
better work occj^fc ycu are net ooing ae ■.-.ell
as you could?
4. Kas your teacher ever euggeeted that ycu
were ^^orkin^ too hard?
;18. Turney, Au;Btin H. and Hyde, M. F. The Attitude cf
Junior Eigh School Pupils Toward Ability Grouping.
School Feview 39:597-607. Cot. '31.
r
82
5. Has any one ever sugpeeted that you were
working too hard?
6. Have your parents ever scolded oi blamed
you because you were not in as high a group
as they would like to have you?
7. Have any other pupils ever said anything
to you that make you feel that you would
like to be in another group?
8. What comments have been made?
9. Would you be happier if the pupils in
your school were not placed in sections?
10. THaat are your reasons for answering
question nine as you did?
11. Do you think that you get along better
in your work because you are in the group
that you are in?
12. Have you ever been "razzed" or "kidded"
because you were in a high or low section?"
To question 1, 26 per cent of the pupils answered
"yes", 72 per cent "no", and 2 percent gave no answer; to
question 2, 2b per cent of the pupils answered "yes", 20
per cent "no", and 2 per cent gave no answer; to question
6, 21 per cent answered "yes", 77 per cent "no", and 2 per
cent gave no answer at all. To question 7, "Have any other
pupils ever said anything to you that make you feel that
you would like to be in another group?", a question that
would probably have a great effect on the attitude of the
pupil, 17 per cent answered "yes", 82 per cent answered
"no", and 1 per cent gave no answer. Question 9, "Would
you be happier if the pupils in yo^jr school were not placed
in sections?", the answers to which are more truly indicative
of the pupils' reaction than any other, was answered in the
affirmative by 31 per cent of the pupils and in the negative
by 62 per cent. Question 11, which attempted to secure the
c
pupils opinion of the effect of grouping upon his achievement,
was answered affirmatively by 24.5 per cent of the pupils,
negatively by 68 per cent of the pupils while 7.5 per cent
did not answer. Thirteen per cent of the pupils answered
"yes" to question 12, 83 per cent answered "no", and 4
per cent gave no answer
The writers sum up the attitudes of the pupils
29
as follows:
"It is evident that the situation is not
perfect in the sense that all the pupils are
entirely happy; that none of them would
prefer a different arrangement, or that none
of them have ever been subject to unpleasant
comment or criticism; However, it is plain
that the great majority are happy and
satisfied, that they look on school as a
serious business from which they want to get
as much as possible, and tnat they accept and
believe in the grouping that exists as the
best situation for them."
Clem and Wroath found that 60 principals or
approximately 85 per cent of tnose in charge of junior high
school employing this plan felt tnat homogeneous grouping
did not brand or stigmatize the pupils in their schools while
6 or about 8\ per cent felt that it did. Sixty-four or 91
per cent thought that the use of grouping did not tend to
make bright children become egotistical while one principal
thought that it did. Eighty-five per cent felt that dull
pupils were satisfied with their groups, while 8\ per cent
thought that they were not satisfied.
29. Turney, Austin H. and Hyde, M F. Op. Cit. p. 606.
!
/
84
From these studies, therefore, we must conclude
that the objection that grouping pupils according to ability-
tends to "stigmatize" or discourage dull pupils is of
doubtful validity.
d. PRACTICES CONT^^CTICN WITH ABILITY GROUPING IN THE
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL.
While ability grouping is practiced by a majority
of junior high schools, a great diversity of procedure in
formingand in teaching such ability groups is found to
exist.
In an effort to learn to what extent individual
differences were being recognized the junior high school,
30
Dvorak, about 1921, addressed inquiries to 86 junior
high schools in various parts of the Iftiited States. One
of the questions asked was, "On what bases are grades
divided into different sections?", and in order to secure
specific replies to this question, the schools were asked
which of the following criteria were used in dividing: (1)
mental tests, (2) teachers' judgment, (3) standardized
achievement tests in subject matter, (4) random selection,
(5) sex, (6) school marks earned in previous grade, (7)
school marks earned in present grade, (8) chrono logical age.
30. Dvorak, August. Op. Cit. p. 679.
/I
85
Analysis of the replies showed that 11 of the
schools relied upon random selection; 7 relied on mental
tests and teachers' judgments; 5 relied on teachers'
judgments alone; 6 relied on mental tests, teachers'
judgments, and subject tests; 5 relied on teachers'
judgments and previous marks; and the other schools relied
on various combinations of the bases in question.
Further analyeis shows that 41 schools used no
mental tests and 45 used mental tests; 59 schools used no
educational tests and 27 used educational tests; 33 schools
used no tests and 53 used tests, 32 schools relied on 1
test, and 21 used more than 1 test; 21 schools used only 1
mental test, and 24 schools ^osed more than 1 mental test;
4 schools use but 1 educational test and 23 schools used
more than 1 educational test; 1 school relied on mental
tests alone; 2 schools relied on mental and educational
tests alone; 21 schools used both mental and educational
tests, often combined with other bases; 9 schools used mental
tests and 1 other criterion; 4 schools used educational
tests and 1 other criterion.
31
In 1933, Clem and Wroath in a similar study, sent
a questionnaire to 80 junior high schools in cities of over
100,000 population thro^jghout the United States. From the
21. Clem, Orlie M. and Wroath, Lydia F. Op. cit. p. 207
86
replies, 61 were found to have a definite eystem of homo-
geneous grouping, 10 had a modified form of homogeneous
grouping, and 9 h^d no homogeneous grouping.
Forty-two different bases were used by these schools
in forming groups. Fifty-three of the schools used
intelligence quotients; 47 schools used mental tests; 40
schools used teachers* records in present class; 33 used
chronological age; 34 used achievement tests; 29 used school
marks in previous grades; 25 used teachers' judgment of
intelligence; 20 used class rank in the previous grade, 11
used personal judgment of personal traits; 12 used education-
al age; 10 used social age, and 10 used standard achievement
tests. All other bases were used by less than 10 schools.
A comparison of the later findings with those of
Dvorak show a much greater use of mental tests or intelli-
gence quotients. This undoubtedly represents improvement
as intelligence quotients have been shown to be highly
valuable as a basis for forming ability groups. The other
bases that aie most widely used, — achievement tests, school
marks in previous grades, teachers' judgment of intelligence,
etc. — have also b^en found to be reliable for purposes of
sectioning pupils according to ability.
Another aspect of homogeneous grouping which
deserves consideration is the manner and extent of adapting
subject matter and instruction to tne abilities of the
87
32
various groups. Turney states:
"It may not be too much to say, therefore, that the
experimental literature contains strong indications
that when ability grouping is accompanied by suit-
able adaptations of method or materials better a-
chievement may result or time may be saved."
33
Dvorak found that 49 of the 86 schools listed
"quality of work" as the differentiating factor among the
ability groups; 23 maintained different promotional rates;
27 schools varied the n^jmber of pa^es covered, according
to the ability of the group; 26 schools reported differ-
ences in the number of subjects taken up; and 38 schools
34
reported extra work in the superior sections.
Clem and Wroath, likewise, made inquiries as to
methods of adapting instruction to groups of different
ability in the junior high school. From the replies of 71
jijinior high schools, it was found that 22 schools provided
acceleration for brighter pupils; 45 maintained standards
of work commensurate with the abilities of each group; 24
maintained special standard of marks for each group bases
on relative achievement in that group irrespective of other
groups; 40 provided a course of minimum essentials covered;
33 provided special citizenship training; 28 provided drill
work; 24 provided individual instruction; 40 provided oppor-
tunities for creative self-expression; 15 provided oppor-
tunities for the slow pupil to do the work expected of the
^^Turney, Austin H. Op. cit. p. 41
33
Dvorak, August Op. cit. p. 684
^^Clem, Or lie M. and Wroath, Lydia F. Op. cit. p. 209
i
88
highest group; 19 provided a regular course with allow-
ances made for slow groups; 18 provided opportunity for
study coach classes; and a small n'omber of schools used
various other methods.
It is interesting to note that aporoximately the
same number of schools, about one-third of tne group in
each study report the use of different rates of promotion.
Altho^agh the opinion of educational leaders is that greater
benefits may be secured by enriching the program of stud-
35
ies and intensifying the training of pupils throughout the
usual number of scholastic years, it is evident that the
notion of accelerating bright pupils through the grades by
rapid or double promotions oersists.
Reference to tne frequency with which the various
procedures listed above are being used, shows that the ma-
jority of schools are attempting to adopt subject matter
and methods to the capacity of the group. Enrichment, with
supplementary work for bright pupils — a procedure that is
generally recognized as educationally sound — is used by 61
or more than 80 per cent of the schools reporting to Clem
and Wroath. It is obvious, however, that some of these
schools provide acceleration for the bright pupils as well.
Intensive work for bright pupils is provided by 48 schools;
standards of work commensurate with the ability of the
35 -
Davis, Calvin 0. Op. cit. p. 58
c
89
group are maintained "by 45 echools; and courses of min-
imum essentials for the dull are provided by 40 schools.
The large number of schools making such provisions shows
that efforts are being made by an increasing number of
schools to furnish each group with the kind of instruc-
tion best suited to its needs and abilities. The increas-
ing heterogeneity of the school population clearly indi-
cates that the same course of study cannot be offered to
all groups regardless of the time spent on the subject.
Efforts to adjust courses to individual differences in abil-
ity by different promotional rates, by increasing or decreas-
ing the number of subjects, or by enlarging or reducing the
number of pages covered seems not only unsound but futile.
The teaching procedure and the subject matter itself must
be adapted to the capacity of the group if the advantages
claimed for homogeneous grouping are to be realized.
That the majority of junior high schools today are
cognizant of this and are, in fact, adjusting materials and
Eiethods to the needs and abilities of the group is apparent
from the later study. A comparison of the methods of
adapting instruction for the various groups revealed in these
two studies shows that the trend is toward enrichment and ad-
justment in place of attempts to fit the individual's ability
to each course.
4
90
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
In this study the purpose has been to examine
the individual differences of junior high school pupils
in the light of the peculiar functions of the junior high
school, to draw whatever conclusions about the nature,
extent, and tendencies of these individual differences
seemed to be justified by the available data, and to ex-
amine particularly the technique of ability grouping to
determine from theoretical and practical studies of the
subject what practices have been found most valuable and
most effective in connection with the use of this plan as
a means of recognizing individual differences in this unit
of the school system.
Certain of these individual differences were exam-
ined directly by the writer, but, for the most part the study
has consisted of an analysis and comparison of the more re-
cent investigations of individual differences in the junior
high school. In examining the technique of ability group-
ing, the procedure has been to study and compare the more
important of the recent experiments and reports dealing with
this plan of providing for individual differences in the jun-
ior high school.
c
s
c
91
The junior high school, while having certain
functions in common with the other units of the public
school system, was found to have certain functions es-
pecially adapted to itself because the features of this
organization were adopted for the express purpose of per-
forming these functions. The peculiar functions of re-
tention of pupils, recognition of individual differences,
exploration and guidance, economy of time, beginnings of
vocational education, recognition of the nature of the
child at adolescence, departmental teaching, and improv-
ing the disciplinary situation and socializing opoortun-
ities were found to be of primary importance among these
functions, exploration and guidance and recognition of
individual differences were found to be most important.
An examination of the individual differences
of junior high school pupils disclosed wide variation in
the ages of pupils amounting in some cases to five or six
years. There was some evidence, though slight, that the
amount of overageness in the later grades in the later
years of the junior high school has decreased. Such dif-
ferences in age were shown to be accompanied by corres-
ponding differences in physical size and development, and
in degree of sexual maturity.
The intelligence of pupils in these grades was
shown to vary greatly extending, according to Terman's
I
92
1
classification, from the point on the scale indicating
a bordering upon the f eeble-mindedness to that indicating
genius or near genius. There was no evidence that the
increased enrollments of the schools were enlarging the
range of intelligence in the junior high school, although
there was ample evidence that it was increasing apprecia-
bly the number of pupils in the lower intelligence groups.
In achievement, also, wide differences were found.
In a single grade differences amounting tc eight grades of
progress were found to exist between pupil achievement ex-
tremes in some subjects. There was evidence that differ-
ences in achievement tended to increase in the later grades.
A large variation in pupils ' tastes , interests,
and aptitudes was also shown extending from preferences for
certain subjects to participation in outside work and fu-
ture school plans.
An examination of the environment and background
of pupils showed a wide variety of home conditions, great
diversity in the occupational status of the parents, a some-
what smaller variation in nationality of parents, and vari-
ous other differences dependent upon these factors.
Such wide differences, especially in ability,
demonstrated the need of special techniques for their recog-
nition. Of the various means employed for this purpose
terman, Lewis M. The Measurement of Intelligence.
New York. Houghton, Mifflin and Co. 1916.
e
93
ability grouping was found to be most frequently used.
Evidence was presented in an attempt to show that ability
grouping has been recognized as an efficient means of pro-
viding for individual differences.
A study of the bases used in forming ability
groups revealed that among single bases, elementary school
teachers' estimate of capacity, fifth and sixth grade marks,
and sixth grade marks have been found most accurate for sec-
tioning pupils according to ability. Intelligence quotients,
or mental test scores were also found to be reliable. Com-
binations of bases were shown to be more accurate than sin-
gle bases for this purpose. The combinations of (1) ele-
mentary school teachers' estimates of pupils' capacity and
intelligence quotients or composite scores from group mental
tests, (2) elementary school teachers' mark and intelligence
quotients and (3) sixth grade marks and intelligence quo-
tients have been found most accurate of all in forming abil-
ity groups. Sixth grade mark and intelligence quotients are
more reliable than fifth-sixth grade marks and intelligence
quotients .
The attitudes of most junior high school adminis-
trators was found to be favorable to the use of ability
grouping. The evidence available tended to show also that
most pupils were not averse to the practice. There was some
evidence that parents were favorablii^ disposed to the use of
the plan.
94
An analysis of studies regarding practices showed
that improved methods of sectioning pupils have been adopted
by most junior high schools. The trend seems to be away from
a rigid presentation of subject matter to all groups
toward adaptation of the materials and instructional proce-
dures to the needs and abilities of the group.
In conclusion, this study has dealt with the plan
of ability grouping as a means of recognizing individual
differences without particular regard to varioas other plans
that have also been proposed and are being used for this pur-
pose. Comparison of this iDlan with that of heterogeneous
grouping has, the writer believes, demonstrated the superior-
ity of the former in the modern educational scheme. It is not
contended that it is a perfect plan. Indeed, even its most
ardent supporters admit its imperfections, especially if the
plan is not intelligently and impartially administered. The
testimony of administrators, the opinion of educational au-
thorities, formed from observation and experimental studies
of the plan in practice, and, above all, the wide-spread use
that has been and is being made of the plan as a means of rec-
ognizing the individual differences found among the population
of our junior high schools testify to its effectiveness.
Educational practice is a constantly changing, constantly
evolving system ever adapting itself to the needs of the times.
Perhaps in the future some individual study plan such as the
Dalton or Winnetka plans may be found more practicable and
0
96
more efficient for this purpose. Possibly some new tech-
nique or combination of techniques may prove more satisfac-
tory. Until that time, ability grouping may well serve as
a means of recognizing individual differences in ability
in the junior high school.
0
c
BIBLIOGRAPHY
96
Billet, Roy 0.
Briggs, Thomas H.
Burr, Marvin Y.
Davis, Calvin 0.
Individual Differences, Marking,
and Promotion. Bulletin, 1932,
No. 17. National Survey of Sec-
ondary Education.
The J-onior High School. New York.
Houghton-Mifflin, and Co. 1920.
A Study of Homogeneous Grouping.
Contributions to Education. No.
457. New York, Teachers College.
Columhia University. 1931.
Junior High School Education. New
York. World Book Co. 1924.
Inglis, Alexander
Koos, Leonard V.
Principles of Secondary Education.
Houghton, Mifflin, and Co. 1918.
The Junior High School. Ginn and
Go . 1927 .
Ryan, H. H. and Cre-
celius, p.
Ability Grouping in the Junior High
School. New York. Harcourt, Brace,
and Co.
Terman, Lewis M.
The Measurement of Intelligence.
New York. World Book Co. 1923.
PERIODICALS AND JOURNALS
Baldwin, Bird T
Billet, Roy 0.
"A Measuring Scale for Physical Growth
and Physiological Age" Fifteenth
Yearbook of National Society for the
Study of Education (1916) Pt.l, p. 17.
"Differentiation of Freshman English for
Groups of Different Abilities? Educa-
tional Research Bulletin of Ohio State
University 5:185-190. April, 1926.
97
Breed, Fred. S. and
Ereslich, Ernst. R.
"Intelligence Teste and the
Classification of Pupils."
School Review. Jan. and Mar
1922. Vol. XXX, Dp. 51-66,
210-226.
Brooks, Fowler D.
Burk, Frederic L.
Coxe, W. W.
"Sectioning Junior High School
Pupils By Tests and School Marks."
Journal of Ed. Res.earch 13:3
"{growth of Children in Height and
and Weight". Amer. Journal of
Psychology 9:262 Apr. 1928.
"Grouping Pupils for Purposes of
Instruction. Nation's Schools.
3:47-54 May 1929
"Our Homogeneous Ability Grouping
Confusion." Journal of Ed. Re-
search 25:1-5 Jan. 1932
Clem, Or lie M. and
Calhoon, A. R.
"Organizing Junior High Schools
To Meet Individual Differences"
Ed. Administration and Supervis-
ion. Kov. 1933
Clem, Orlie M. and
Malloy, K. V.
"Some individual- Differences of
Pupils in One Typical Junior
High School" Educational Admin-
istration and Supervision. 16:29-
52. Jan. 1930
Clem, Orlie M. and
Wroath, Lydia F.
Crampton, C. W.
Doten, Willard
Douglass, Harl A.
"Homogeneous Grouping? Educational
Method. 13:2!06-11 Jan. '34
"Physiological Age — A Fundamental
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Review 39:257-71 Apr. '31.
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"Individual Differences in the Jun-
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"Analysis of Experimental Studies in
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Peckell, Frank G.
"Ability Grouping of Junior High School
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€*
99
Price, E. D.
Symonds, P. M.
Torgereon, T- L.
Theisen, W. W.
Turney, Austin W.
Turney, Austin W. and
Hyde, M. F.
"A Plan of Classifying Pupils"
Journal of Educational Research
12:341-48 Dec. 1925
"Homogeneous Grouping" Teachers
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and I. Q. Worth While? Journal of
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"The Relative Progress
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of 7-b groups
of Ability?
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cational Administration and Supervision
17:21-42, 110-127. Jan- Feb. 1932
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MISCELLANEOUS
Baldwin, Bird T
Wood, Thomas
and
Clark, Sydenstrucker ,
and Wood
A Class Room Weight Record,
by U. S. Health Service
Published
Heights and Weights of School Children.
Published by U. S. Health Service
Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education.
U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 35. 1918
DATE DUE
DEC. 7
1965
/
GAYLORO
pnr NT ED IN U. S. A .
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^tZutoi^
McOrath Hubert ^loy.ius.
the OU„"A\\"LKf ^"
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